ffiS^----' 


UC-NRLF 


*B   3D7   DD7 


.^-'  GRAM  ^ 


^RA 


Ji 


^       PROBUCTIVB   SYSTEM 


BY  ROSWELL  C.  SMITH 


HE'S^    STt- 


7/ 


SMITH'S  NEW   GRAMMAR. 


ENGLI 


MAK7-5 


^'MaC 


PRODUCTIVE  system: 


METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION  RECENTLY  ADOPTED 


GERMANY  AND  SWITZERLAND. 


IBesfgnetf  for  ScI)ools  anti  0catremla». 


BY  ROSWELL  C.  SMITH, 

AUTHOR  OF    "practical  AND   MENTAL  ARITHMETIC,"  "INTELLECTUAL  AND 
PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR,"    AND    "INTRODUCTORY   ARITHMETIC." 


NEW  STEREOTYPE  EDITION. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

PUBLISHED   BY   E.  H.  BUTLER  &  CO. 
.      1847. 


'^.X^l 


t 


j: *„   A  -4.  ^r  r* :„  *t S:_  i 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1832,  by 

Perkins  &  Marvin, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


(2) 


rRINTED    BY    SMITH     AND    PETERS 

Franklin  BuiMings.  6th  St..  below  Ai*«K 


PREFACE.  ;  2  yy 

The  following  work  was  composed,  as  is  indicated  by  Ihe'^''^ 
title,  on  what  is  styled  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  the 
"  Productive  System  of  Instruction."  It  is  in  these  countries 
that  the  subject  of  Education  has  been  deemed  a  matter  of 
paramount  importance.  The  art  of  teaching,  particularly, 
has  there  been  most  ably  and  minutely  investigated.  To 
give  a  brief  account  of  the  different  systems  which  have 
prevailed  there,  may  not  be  irrelevant  on  the  present  occa- 
sion, as  they  assist  in  forming  an  opinion  of  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  "  Productive  System,"  on  which  this  work  is 
principally  based. 

"  In  reference  to  intellectual  education,  the  persons  who  were  in- 
strumental in  producing  the  reformation  in  schools,  in  the  last  century, 
in  these  countries,  may  be  divided  into  four  classes  —  the  Humanists, 
Philanthropists,  Pestalozzian  and  the  Productive  Schools. 

"  At  the  restoration  of  learning,  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
the  classics  were  brought  out  from  the  libraries  of  the  cloisters  in  which 
they  had  been  buried.  As  they  presented  the  only  examples  of  exalted 
sentiments  and  elevated  style  which  the  secular  literature  of  the  age 
afforded,  they  were  regarded  as  the  only  means  of  acquiring  enlarged 
views  and  a  liberal  education ;  the  study  of  them  received  th€  proud  title 
o{  Humanity ;  and  the  zealous  and  meritorious  men  who  employed  this 
means  for  the  revival  of  learning,  were  subsequently  termed  Humamsts, 

"  The  rigid  Humanists  maintained  that '  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors 
are  the  only  source  of  sound  learning,  whether  in  philosophy  or  rhetoric, 
in  poetry  or  history,  in  medicine  or  law,  and  even  in  the  elements  of 
religion ;  all  has  come  to  us  from  Greece  and  Rome.'  *  The  learning  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  is  the  only  foundation  of  a  thorough 
education ;'  the  knowledge  of  the  grammar  ought  to  precede  all  other 
knowledge;  *  and  philologists  are  the  only  thoroughly  learned  men.' 

"The  Humanists  maintained  the  entire  sway  of  the  learned  world 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  the  school  of  the 
Philanthropists  arose.  Disgusted  with  the  extravagant  manner  in  which 
the  ancient  languages  were  extolled,  they  were  led  to  examine  into  the 
foundations  of  their  pretensions.  While  they  yielded  the  palm  to  the 
ancients  in  all  that  relates  to  matters  of  taste  and  beauty,  they  maintained 
that  this  superiority  arose  from  the  fact,  that  the  ancients  derived  their 
views  directly  from  the  inspection  of  nature  and  the  observation  of  man, 
instead  of  occupying  themselves,  as  we  do,  with  the  mere  pictures  of  them 
drawn  by  others ; — they  pointed  to  the  obvious  truth,  that  the  world  is  older 
and  vastly  more  experienced  than  it  was  two  thousand  years  ago ;  that  in 
regard  to  all  that  relates  to  human  knowledge,  the  present  generation  are 
really  the  ancients.  They  believed  that  much  time  was  lost  by  the 
indiscriminate  and  exclusive  use  of  the  classics  as  the  foundation  of 
education,  which  ought  to  be  spent  in  acquisition  of  practical  knowledge; 
and  that  by  this  tedious   and    laborious    task,   without   any  perceptible 


a) 


m:^9QP01 


4  PREFACE. 

advantage  to  the  pupil,  they  were  often  disg-usted  with  every  species  of 
intellectual  effort  They  also  pointed  out  the  moral  corruption  which 
arises  from  many  of  the  examples  and  sentiments  of  the  ancients,  and 
especially  disapproved  that  discipline  of  compulsion  and  violence,  by 
which  children  have  been  forced  to  this  ungrateful  employment.  They 
urged  the  importance  of  leading  by  the  attraction  of  knowledge  itself, 
rather  than  by  force.  They  paid  much  attention  to  the  developement  of 
the  bodily  constitution  and  powers,  and  professed  to  aim  at  forming  men, 
and  not  mere  scholars.  #51' 

"  But,  with  the  ordinary  weakness  of  human  nature,  in  avoiding  one 
extreme,  they  ran  into  the  opposite.  They  forgot  the  valuable  influence 
of  these  studies,  properly  regulated,  upon  the  faculties  and  habits  of  the 
mind. 

"  Notwithstanding  their  error,  the  Philanthropists  unquestionably  exerted 
much  influence  on  the  improvement  of  education.  The  extravagant  views 
of  the  Humanists  were  considerably  modified ;  and  although  many  still 
retain  the  exclusive  maxims  of  their  predecessors,  many  admit,  as  stated 
in  the  German  '  Conversations  Lexicon,"  that '  all  should  be  embraced  in 
education  which  can  promote  the  formation  of  the  man,  and  prepare  him 
for  the  eternal  destiny  of  his  spirit.^  The  Philanthropists  also  prepared 
the  way  for  their  successors  of  the  School  of  Pestalozzi.  This  remarkable 
man  adopted  many  of  the  opinions  of  his  predecessors  of  the  Philanthropic 
school,  especially  those  which  related  to  the  developement  of  the  bodily 
powers,  and  the  methods  of  discipline,  and  religious  instruction.  He  per- 
ceived, however,  that,  in  assuming  practical  utility  as  the  exclusive  test 
of  the  value  of  particular  objects  of  instruction,  they  had  too  much 
neglected  the  developement  of  the  mind  itself  In  seeking  to  avoid  this 
error,  jiowever,  he  did  not  entirely  escape  the  other  extreme.  He  assumed, 
as  a  fundamental  principle,  that  a  certain  developement  of  mind  was 
necessary  for  every  rank  and  every  occupation.  The  means  of  this 
developement  he  supposed  himself  to  have  found,  so  far  as  the  intellectual 
faculties  were  concerned,  in  the  elements  of  form  and  number,  which  are 
combined  in  the  science  of  Mathematics,  in  Language,  and  in  Natural 
History.  The  Mathematics  appear  to  have  assumed  a  preponderance  in 
practice,  which  was  unfavorable  to  the  regular  and  harmonious  cultivatioji 
of  other  powers.  The  senses  and  the  bodily  powers  he  endeavored  to 
develope,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  Philanthropic  school,  by  the 
careful  examination  of  the  various  objects  of  nature  and  art,  which  sur- 
round the  pupil,  by  means  of  music,  and  by  gymnastic  exercises,  alternated 
or  combined  with  labor.  Pestalozzi  himself  was  remarkably  the  creature 
of  powertiil  impulses,  which  were  usually  of  the  most  mild  and  benevolent 
kind,  and  preserved  a  child-like  character  in  this  respect,  even  to  old  age. 
It  was  probably  this  temperament  which  led  him  to  estimate  at  a  low  rate 
the  importance  of  positive  religious  truth  in  the  education  of  children,  and 
to  maintain  that  the  mere  habit  of  faith  and  love,  if  cultivated  towards 
earthly  parents  and  benefactors,  would  of  course  be  transferred  to  our 
heavenly  Father,  whenever  his  character  should  be  exhibited  to  the 
mind  of  the  child.  The  fundamental  error  of  this  view  was  established 
by  the  unhappy  experience  of  his  own  institution:  and  his  own  ex- 
ample afforded  the  most  striking  evidence  that  the  noblest  impulses, 
not  directed  by  established  principles,  may  lead  to  imprudence  and 
ruin,  and    thus    defeat  their    own    ends.*     This    principle,    combined 

*  As  an  example  of  this,  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  on  one  of  those  occasions  (fre- 
quently occurring)  on  which  he  was  reduced  to  extremity  for  want  (tf  the  means  of 
supplying  his  large  family,  he  borrowed  $400  from  a  friend  for  this  purpose.  In  going 
home,  he  met  a  peasant  wringing  his  hands  in  despair  for  the  loss  of  Jiis  cow.  Pes- 
talozzi put  the  entire  bag  of  money  into  his  hands,  and  ran  off  to  escape  his  thanks, 


PREFACE.  S 

with  the  want  of  tact  in  reference  to  the  affairs  of  common  life, 
materially  impaired  his  powers  of  usefulness  as  a  practical  instructer 
of  youth.  The  rapid  progress  of  his  ideas  rarely  allowed  him  to  execute 
his  own  plans;  and,  according  to  his  own  system,  too  much  time  was 
employed  in  the  profound  developement  of  principles  to  admit  of  much 
attention  to  their  practical  application.  But,  as  one  of  his  admirers 
observed,  he  seemed  destined  to  educate  ideas  and  not  children.  He  com- 
bated, with  unshrinking  boldness,  and  untiring  perseverance,  through  a 
long  life,  both  by  his  example  and  by  his  numerous  publications,  the 
prejudices  and  abuses  of  the  age,  in  reference  to  education.  He  attacked, 
with  great  vigor  and  no  small  degree  of  success,  that  favorite  maxim  of  , 
bigotry  and  tyranny,  that  obedience '  and  devotion  are  the  legitimate 
offspring  of  ignorance.  He  denounced  that  degrading  system  which 
considers  it  enough  to  enable  man  to  procure  a  subsistence  for  himself 
and  his  offspring  —  and  in  this  manner  to  merely  place  him  on  a  level 
with  the  beast  of  the  forest ;  and  which  deems  every  thing  lost  whose 
value  cannot  be  estimated  in  money.  He  urged  upon  the  consciences 
of  parents  and  of  rulers,  with  an  energy  approaching  that  of  the  an- 
cient prophets,  the  solemn  duties  which  Divine  Providence  had  imposed 
upon  them,  in  committing  to  their  charge  the  present  and  future  desti- 
nies of  their  fellow  beings.  In  this  way  he  produced  an  impulse,  which 
pervaded  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  which,  by  means  of  his  popular 
and  theoretical  works,  reached  the  cottages  of  the  poor  and  palaces  of 
the  great.  His  institution  at  Yverdun  was  crowded  with  men  of  every 
nation,  not  merely  those  who  were  led  by  the  same  benevolence  which 
inspired  him,  but  by  the  agents  of  kings,  and  noblemen,  and  public  insti- 
tutions, who  came  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  his  principles,  in 
order  to  become  fellow-laborers  in  his  plans  of  benevolence. 

"  It  is  to  these  companions  of  his  labors,  most  of  whom  resided  in 
Germany  or  Switzerland,  that  we  owe  the  formation  of  another  school, 
which  has  been  styled  the  Productive  School^  and  which  now  predomi- 
nates in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  It  might,  perhaps,  with  equal  pro- 
priety, be  termed  the  Eclectic  School ;  for  it  aims  at  embodying  all  the 
valuable  principles  of  previous  systems,  without  adhering  slavishly  to  the 
dictates  of  any  master,  or  the  views  of  any  party.  It  rejects  alike  the 
idolatrous  homage  to  the  classics,  which  was  paid  by  the  Humanists — the 
unreasonable  prejudices  of  the  Philanthropists  against  classical  and  merely 
literary  pursuits  —  and  the  undue  predilection  for  the  mere  expansion  of 
mind,  to  the  neglect  of  positive  knowledge  and  practical  application,  which 
characterized  too  many  of  the  Pestalozzian  School. 

"  The  leading  principle  of  this  system,  is  that  which  its  name  indicates 
— that  the  child  should  be  regarded  not  as  a  mere  recipient  of  the  ideas 
of  others,  but  as  an  agent  capable  of  collecting,  and  originating,  and  pro- 
ducing most  of  the  ideas  which  are  necessary  for  its  education,  when  pre- 
sented with  the  objects  or  the  facts  from  which  they  may  be  derived. 
While,  on  the  one  hand,  they  are  careful  not  to  reduce  the  pupil  to  a  mere 
machine,  to  be  moved  by  the  will  of  his  instructer  in  an  assigned  dire«- 
tion,  or  a  mass  of  passive  matter,  to  be  formed  by  him  according  to  his 
own  favorite  model,  they  are  equally  careful  to  avoid  the  extreme,  into 
which  some  of  the  preceding  school  have  fallen,  of  leaving  him  to  wander 
indefinitely,  in  a  wrong  direction  in  search  of  truth,  in  order  to  secure  to 
him  the  merit  of  discovery.  They  consider  a  course  of  education  as* 
divided  into  two  parts — the  period  of  developement  and  the  period  of  acqui- 
sition. In  the  first  period,  which  they  consider  as  particularly  devoted  to 
developing  the  faculties  and  forming  the  habits  of  the  mind^  in  order  to 
prepare  U  as  an  instrument  for  future  operations^  they  employ  the  induc- 
tive process  chiefly.  Time  is  not  here  of  so  much  importance  as  the 
1* 


6  PREFACE. 

habit  of  investigation  and  effort,  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  meeting 
sind  overcoming  difficulties.  This  period,  which  must  be  made  longer  or 
shorter  according  to  the  character  of  the  pupil,  or  the  necessity  that  his 
circumstances  in  life  may  impose,  is  succeeded  by  the  period  of  acquisi- 
tion, in  which  the  mind  is  more  especially  called  upon  to  exercise  the 
powers  which  have  been  previously  developed  and  cultivated^  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  such  positive  knowledge  as  may  prepare  the  individual  for  life 
and  action.  The  inductive  process  is  still  employed  as  much  as  possible, 
not  only  because  it  has  become,  for  many  cases,  the  shortest  and  most 
agreeable,  but  because  it  is  important  to  maintain  the  habits  it  has  pro- 
duced, and  invigorate  the  faculties  it  has  served  to  develope. 

"  But  still  it  is  far  less  employed  than  previously,  and  the  pupil  is  never 
suffered  to  waste  his  time  in  attempting  to  create  a  science  for  himself, 
and  thus  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the  experience  of  sages  and  centuries. 
On  the  contrary,  they  deem  his  mind  capable  of  being  elevated  even  more 
rapidly  by  following  the  processes  of  patient  investigation,  by  which  the 
most  exalted  minds  have  arrived  at  results  that  astonish  and  delight  him, 
and  of  thus  learning  to  imitate  strides,  which  seem  to  him  like  those  of  a 
giant,  and  to  cultivate  those  habits  of  untiring  attention,  which  the  great- 
est philosophers  have  declared  to  be  the  principal  source  of  that  telescopic 
glance,  that  almost  unerring  power  of  discrimination,  which  seems  to 
others  so  nearly  miraculous. 

"  Such  is  the  Productive  System,  by  which  the  powers  of  the  pupil  are 
called  into  complete  exercise  by  requiring  him  to  attempt  a  task  unaided, 
and  then  assisting  him  in  correcting  his  own  errors,  or  returning  from  his 
own  wanderings,  before  he  is  discouraged  by  the  waste  of  time  and  the 
fruitlessness  of  his  efforts.  They  distinguish  carefully  between  know- 
ledge and  the  means  of  obtaining  it.  To  cultivate  the  senses,  and  pre- 
sent the  objects  which  they  are  capable  of  examining,  is  to  open  to  the 
child  the  sources  of  knowledge — to  place  before  him  a  book  which  is  ever 
open,  and  in  which  he  may  every  moment  read.  This,  they  maintain,  is 
the  first  and  most  obvious  part  of  education,  according  to  the  dictates  of 
common  sense.  It  is  one  in  which  nothing  but  truth  is  presented  to  him, 
and  which,  by  calling  his  powers  into  constant  exercise,  ensures  their 
improvement,  and  cultivates  a  spirit  of  investigation." 

The  preceding  extracts  are  taken  from  Art.  I.  Vol.  I. 
No.  VI.  of  the  American  Journal  of  Education,  New  Series. 
The  author  avails  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  express  his 
obligations  to  the  conductors  of  this  valuable  periodical.  A 
constant  perusal  of  its  pages  has  afforded  him  many  valuable 
ideas  on  the  subject  of  education,  and  he  cheerfully  acknow- 
ledges material  assistance  derived  from  it  in  the  preparation 
of  the  "  Productive  System  of  English  Grammar,"  which 
is  now  respectfully  submitted  to  the  candid  examination  of  the 
public, 

THE  AUTHOR. 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


« 


I.  OF  THE  NOUN. 


Q.  What  is  your  name  ? 

Q.  What  is  the  name  of  the  town  in  which  you  Uve  ? 

Q.  What  does  the  word  noun  mean? 

Mns,  The  word  noun  means  name, 

Q,  What,  then,  may  your  name  be  called? 

1.  A    NOUN. 

Q.  What  may  all  names  be  called? 

2.  Nouns. 

Q.  Boston  is  the  name  of  a  place :  is  Boston  a  noun  ?  and  if  so,  why  ? 

3.  Boston  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  a  name. 

Q.  Hudson  is  the  name  of  a  river :  is  Hudson  a  noun,  and  why  ? 

Q.  Book  is  the  name  of  something  to  read  in  :  is  book  a  noun,  and  why  ? 

Q.  Will  you  now  inform  me  what  a  noun  is? 

4.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing. 

Q.  Will  you  mention  two  nouns  the  names  of  persons  ?  two,  the  names 
of  things  ?  two,  the  names  of  different  places  ? 

Q.  Will  you  tell  me  which  words  are  the  nouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, as  I  read  them  to  you  ? 

"  Thomas  and  Joseph  are  in  the  house." 

"  The  horse  and  cow  are  in  the  lot." 

"  The  hawk  and  the  eagle  have  flown  to  the  mountain." 

"  Trees,  corn,  potatoes  and  apples  grow  in  the  fields." 


II.  NUMBER. 

Q.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  number  ;  as,  **  The  number  of  but- 
tons on  your  coat?" 

5.  Number  means  one  or  more. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  singular  mean? 

6.  It  means  one. 

Q.  When,  then,  I  speak  of  one  thing  only,  as  chair,  what  number  is  it? 

7.  Singular  number. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  singular  number  of  nouns  denote  ? 

8.  The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  thing. 

(7) 


8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  Of  what  number  is  hooJt,  and  why  ? 

9.  Book  is  of  the  singular  number,  because  it  means 
but  one. 

Q.  Of  what  number  is  chair,  and  why  ? 
Q.  What  does  the  word  plural  mean  ? 

10.  It  means  more  than  one, 

Q.  Of  what  number  is  lamps,  and  why  ? 

1 1 .  Lamps  is  of  the  plural  number,  because  it  means 
more  than  one. 

Q.  Of  what  number  is  inkstand,  and  why  ? 

Q.  By  adding  s  to  dove,  we  have  doveSf  and  es  to  6oar,  we  have  boxes. 
How,  then,  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns  usually  formed  ? 

12.  By  adding  5  or  es  to  the  singular. 

Q.  Will  you  spell  the  plural  of  ounce  ?  glass  ?  window  ?  theatre  ?  antece- 
dent ?  church  ?  labyrinth  ? 

Q.  How  many  numbers  do  nouns  appear  to  have,  and  what  are  they? 

13.  Two,  the  singular  and  plural. 

Q.  Will  you  name  a  noun  of  the  singular  number  ?  one  of  the  plural 
number  ? 


TIL  GENDER. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  gender  mean? 

14.  Gender  signifies  sex. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  masculine  mean? 

15.  It  means  male. 

Q.  John  is  the  name  of  a  male :  of  what  gender  or  sex,  then,  is  John  f 

16.  Of  the  masculine  or  male  gender. 

Q.  What  nouns,  then,  are  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender  ? 

17.  The  names  of  males. 

Q.  What  gender,  then,  is  man,  and  why? 

18.  Man  is  of  the  masculine  gender,  because  it  is  the 
name  of  a  male. 

Q.  Of  what  gender  is  un^le,  and  why  ?  father  ?  why  ? 
Q.  What  does  feminine  mean  ? 

19.  It  means  female. 

Q.  Susan  is  the  name  of  a  female :  of  what  gender,  then,  is  Susan  ? 

20.  Of  the  feminine  gender. 

Q.  What  nouns,  then,  are  said  to  be  of  the  feminine  gender? 

21.  The  names  of  females. 

Q.  What  gender  is  woman,  and  why? 

22.  Woman  is  of  the  feminine  gender,  because  it  is  the 
name  of  a  female. 

O.  Of  what  gender  is  aunt,  and  why  ?  daughter  ?  why  ? 
Q.  What  does  the  word  neuter  mean? 

23.  It  means  neither. 

Q.  Chair  is  the  name  neither  of  a  male  nor  a  female :  what  gender,  then, 
may  it  properly  be  called  ? 

24.  Neuter  gender. 

Q.  What  nouns,  then,  may  be  said  to  be  of  the  neuter  gender  ? 


NOUNS.  9 

25.  The  names  of  objects  that  are  neither  males  nor 
females. 

Q.  Of  what  gender  is  inkstand,  and  why  ? 

26.  Neuter  gender,  because  it  is  the  name  neither  of  a 
male  nor  female. 

Q.  Of  what  gender  is  bench  ?  why  f  chair  ?  why  ? 

Q.  Parent,  you  know,  is  the  name  either  of  father  or  mother,  that  is,  it 
is  a  name  common  to  both :  of  what  gender,  then,  shall  we  call  such  nouns 
aa  parent,  bird,  &.C.  ? 

\27.  Common  gender. 

i  Q.  What  nouns,  then,  may  be  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender  ? 

'  28.  The  names  of  such  animals  a&  may  be  either  males 
or  females. 

„  Q.  Of  what  gender  is  sheep,  and  why  ? 

29.  Sheep  is  of  the  common  gender,  because  it  is  the 
name  either  of  a  male  or  female. 

O.  Of  what  gender  is  robin,  and  why  ? 

Q.  How  many  genders  do  nouns  appear  to  have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

30.  Four — the  masculine,  the  feminine,  the  neuter,  and 
the  common. 

Q.  Will  you  name  a  noun  of  the  masculine  gender  ?  one  of  the  feminine  ? 
one  of  the  neuter  ?  one  of  the  common  ? 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  gender  and  number  of  each  noun  in  the  following 
sentences,  as  I  read  them  to  you  ? 

"  James  and  Willianj.  "  Slate  and  pencil." 

"  Jofin  and  the  girls."  "  Women  and  birds." 


IV.  PROPER  AND  COMMON  NOUNS. 

9.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  comm4m  ;  as,  *'  A  common  com- 
plaint?" 

31.  Common  means  general. 

Q.  Although  there  are  a  vast  many  male  children  in  the  world,  each  one 
may  be  called  by  the  general  name  of  boy :  what  kind  of  a  noun,  then., 
would  you  call  boy? 

32.  A  comnrion  noun. 

Q.  When,  then,  is  a  noun  called  common? 

33.  When  it  is  a  general  name. 

-    Q.  What  does  the  word  proper  mean  ? 

-^  34.  It  means  fit  or  particular. 

Q.  John,  you  know,  is  the  particular  name  of  a  boy:  what  kind  of  a 
noun,  then,  may  it  be  called  ? 

35.  A  proper  noun. 

Q.  When,  then,  may  a  noun  be  called  proper? 

36.  When  it  is  a  particular  name. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  Susan,  and  why  ? 

37.  Susan  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  a  particular 
name. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  John,  and  why  ? 


10        '  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  river,  and  why  ? 

38.  River  is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  a  general 
name. 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  nouns  do  there  appear  to  be,  and  what  are  they  ? 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  girls  ?  Mary  ?  town  f  New  York  ?  London  ? 
boat  ?  chain  ? 

Q.  Will  you  now  tell  me  which  words  are  the  nouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences ;  which  are  proper,  and  which  common ;  also  their  gender  and  number  ? 

"  Thomas  and  John."  "  King  and  queen." 

"  Susan  and  Mary."  "  House  and  barn." 


V.  PERSON. 

Q.  When  a  person,  in  speaking,  says,  **  I,  John,  will  do  it,"  what  peison 
do  grammarians  call  John  ? 

39.  The  first  person. 

Q.  When,  then,  is  a  noun  of  the  first  person?    * 

40.  When  it  is  the  name  of  the  person  speaking. 

Q.  When  I  say,  '*  James,  mind  your  studies,"  what  person  do  gram- 
marians call  James? 

41.  The  second  person,  being  the  person  spoken  to. 

Q,  When,  then,  is  a  noun  of  the  second  person  ? 

42.  When  it  is  the  name  of  the  person  spoken  to,  or 
addressed. 

Q.  "  William,  James  has  come."     What  person  is  William,  and  why  ? 

43.  Of  the  second  person,  because  William  is  spoken 
to. 

Q.  When  I  say,  *'  William,  James  has  come,"  I  am  speaking  to  William 
about  James  :  of  what  person,  then,  is  James,  and  why  ? 

44.  Of  the  third  person,  because  James  was   spoken 
of;  that  is,  I  was  talking  about  James. 

Q.  When,  then,  is  a  noun  of  the  third  person  ? 

45.  When  it  is  spoken  of. 

Q.  **  Thomas,  Rufus  is  in  the  garden."     What  person  is  Thomas  ?  why  ? 
Is  Eufus  ?  why  ? 

Q.  How  many  persons  do  nouns  appear  to  have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

46.  Three  persons  —  the  first,  second,  and  third. 

Q.  Will  you  inform  me  which  of  the  following  nouns  are  proper,  which 
common ;  also  their  gender,  number,  and  person  ? 
"  I,  James,  of  Boston."  "  Boy  and  girl." 

"  Henry,  study  your  book."  "  William  and  his  sister." 


VI.  CASE. 

Q.  We  say  of  an  animal,  for  instance  a  horse,  when  he  is  fat,  that  "  He 
is  in  a  good  case  ;"  and,  when  he  is  lean,  that  '*  He  is  in  a  bad  case  ;"  what, 
therefore,  does  the  word  case  mean  ? 

47.  Case  means  condition,  state,  &c. 


CASES.  11 

Q.  When  I  say,  *'  Charles  strikes  William,"  "  William  strikes  Charles," 
you  may  perceive  that  the  state  or  condition  of  Charles  in  the  former  example 
is  quite  different  from  his  state  or  condition  in  the  latter :  in  the  one,  Charles 
strikes ;  in  the  other,  he  is  struck :  what,  then,  is  meant  by  the  different 
cases  of  nouns  ? 

48.  The  different  condition  or  position  they  have  in 
relation  to  other  words  in  the  same  sentence. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  nominative  mean? 

49.  Nominative  means  naming. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "John  strikes,"  he  evidently  does  something:  what, 
then,  may  John  be  called? 

50.  An  actor  or  doer. 

Q.  Well,  then,  as  the  actor  or  doer  is  considered  the  naming  or  leading 
noun,  in  what  case  is  John,  when  I  say,  "  John  strikes  ?" 

51.  In  the  nominative  case. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  nominative  case  of  nouns? 

52.  The  nominative  case  is  the  agent  or  doer. 

Q.  When  I  say,^ "  The  dog  runs,"  in  what  case  is  dog,  and  why  ? 

53.  Dog  is  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the 
agent,  actor,  or  doer. 

O.  **  The  cat  catches  mice."     In  what  case  is  cat^  and  why  ? 
Q.  When  I  say,  "Thomas  is  pursuing  the  thief,"  what  is  the  object 
here  which  Thomas  is  pursuing? 

54.  Thief. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  objective  mean  ? 

55.  It  means  belonging  to  the  object 

Q.  In  what  case,  then,  may  thief  be  reckoned,  in  the  phrase,  "Thomas 
pursues  the  thief?" 

56.  In  the  objective  case. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  objective  case  denote? 

57.  The  objective  case  denotes  the  object. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  William  whips  John,"  in  what  case  is  John,  and  why? 

58.  In  the  objective  case,  because  John  is  the  Object. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  possessive  imply  ? 

59.  Possession,  oivnership,  property,  &c. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  It  is  John's  slate,"  I  mean  to  say  that  John  owns  the 
elate :  in  what  case,  then,  shall  we  reckon  John's  ? 

60.  In  the  possessive  case. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  denote  ? 

61.  The  possessive  case  denotes  possession,  property, 
&c. 

0.  When  I  say,  "  Peter's  knife,"  who  owns  or  possesses  the  knife  ? 
Q.  In  what  case,  then,  is  Peter's,  and  why? 

62.  In  the  possessive  case,  because  Peter  possesses  the 
knife. 

Q.  In  the  example  "  John's  slate,"  you  perceive  that  John's  ends  in  «, 
with  a  comma  before  it :  what  is  the  comma,  and  what  is  the  s,  ( ailed  in 
grammar  ? 

63.  The  comma  is  called  an  apostrophe,  and  th  3  s,  an 
apostrophic  s. 

Q.  You  also  perceive  that  John's  is  singular :  how,  then,  do  nouns  in  the 
singular  number  usually  form  their  possessive  case  ? 


is  the 


12  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

64.  By  taking  after  them  an  apostrophe  with  the  letter  5 
following  it. 

Q.  "On  eagles'  wings."  Here  eagles^  is  plural,  and  in  the  possessive 
case :  how,  then,  do  nouns  in  the  plural  usually  form  their  possessive  case  ? 

65.  Simply  by  taking  the  apostrophe  without  the  addi- 
tion of  5. 

?.  But  if  the  plural  noun  does  not  end  in  «,  as,  "  men's  concerns,"  how 
he  possessive  case  formed  ? 

66.  As  the  same  case  in  the  singular  number  is  formed. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  remarks,  how  many  cases  do  nouns  appear  to 
have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

67.  Three-— the  nominative,  possessive,  and  objective. 

Q.  Decline  sometimes  means  to  vary  the  endings  of  a  word  :  what,  then, 
do  I  mean  when  I  ask  you  to  decline  a  noun  ? 

68.  To  tell  its  different  cases  or  endings. 

Q.  Will  you  decHne  John? 

69.  Nominative  case,       John. 
Possessive  case,         John's. 
Objective  case,  John. 

Q.  Will  you  decline  boy,  in  both  numbers? 

Singular.  Plural. 

70.  JVom.  Boy.  JVom.  Boys. 

Poss.  Boy's.  Pass.   Boys'. 

Obj.    Boy.  Obj.    Boys. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  William's  coat,"  you  perceive  that  the  noun  coat  fol- 
lows Williarn's  :  by  what  is  William's  said  to  be  governed,  and  why  ? 

71.  By  coat,  because  it  follows  William's. 

Q.  What,  then,  may  be  considered  a  rule  for  governing  the  possessive 
case? 

RT7I.Z:  I. 

The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following 
noun. 

Q.  **  William's  hat."  Is  William's  a  proper  or  common  noun  ?  Why  ? 
(36.)* 

Q.  What  is  its  person  ?  why  ?  (45.)*  Its  number  ?  why  ?  (8.)*  Its  gen- 
der ?  why  ?  (17.)*  Its  case  ?  why  ?  (61.)*  What  noun  follows  William's  t 
What  word,  then,  governs  William's  ?    What  is  the  rule  ? 

Q.  When  we  mention  the  several  properties  of  the  different  words  in 
sentences,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  those  of  William's,  above,  what 
is  the  exercise  called  ? 

72.  Parsing. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  John's  knife." 

73.  John's  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  a  name  —  proper,  be- 
cause it  is  a  particular  name  —  masculine  gender  ;  it  is  the 
name  of  a  male — third  person  ;  it  is  spoken  of —  singular 

'*'  Refer  back  to  this  number. 


ARTICLES.  13 

NUMBER ;  it  means  but  one  —  possessive  case  ;  it  implies 
possession  —  and  it  is  governed  by  the  noun  knife^  accord- 
ing to 

Rule  I.  The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following 
noun. 

Knife  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name  —  common  ;  it  is  a  general 
name  —  neuter  gender;  it  is  neither  male  nor  female  — 
THIRD  person  ;  it  is  spoken  of — singular  number  ;  it  means 
but  one. 

55"  Let  the  learner  parse  the  foregoing,  till  the  mode  of  parsing  the 
noun  is  so  familiar  to  him,  that  he  can  do  it  readily,  without  looking  in  the 
book.  He  mxiy  then  take  the  following  exercises,  which  are  to  he  parsed  in  a 
similar  manner. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED. 

«  Peter's  cap."  "  Stephen's  coat."  "  Brother's  knife." 

«  John's  slate."         "  Father's  house."  «  Boys'  hats." 


4<M^ 


L.  ^       Q.  When  I  say,  '*  Give  me  a  book,"  I  evidently  mean  no  particular  book ; 
^Hr      but  when  I  say,  **  Give  me  the  book,"  what  do  I  meaji  ? 


VII.  OF  ARTICLES. 


t 


j  74.  Some  particular  book. 

Q.  Which  are  the  words  that  make  this  difference  in  meaning  ? 

75.  A  and  the, 
,  mQ'  What  are  these  little  words  called  ? 
"^  76.  Articles. 

Q.  What,  then,  are  articles? 

77..  Articles  are  words  placed  before   nouns  to  limit 
their  meaning. 

Q.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  definite  f 

78.  Definite  means  particular, 

Q.  *'  Give  me  the  book."     Here  a  particular  book  is  referred  to:  what 
kind  of  an  article,  then,  shall  we  call  the? 

79.  Definite  article. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  definite  article? 

80.  It  points  out  what  particular  thing  or  things  are 
meant. 

Q.  The  word  in,  when  placed  before  words,  frequently  signifies  not : 
what,  then,  will  indefinite  mean? 

81.  JVot  definite. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Give  me  a  knife,"  no  particular  knife  is  meant:  what 
kind  of  an  article,  then,  may  a  be  called? 

82.  Indefinite  article. 

Q.  Why  is  it  so  called? 

83.  Because  it  is  not  used  before  the  name  of  any 
particular  person  or  thing.^ 

3  B 


U  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Q.  We  say,  ''an  apple,"  ''an  inkstand,"  &c.  in  preference  to  "a  apple," 
"  a  inkstand,"  &c. :  why  is  this  ? 

84.  Because  it  is  easier  to  speak,  and  also  more  plea- 
sant to  the  ear. 

Q.  What  kind  of  letters  do  apple  and  inkstand  begin  with  ? 

85.  Vowels. 

Q.  In  what  cases  do  we  use  an  instead  of  a  ? 

86.  Before  words  beginning  with  the  vowels  a,  e,  i, 
0,  u. 

Q.  In  speaking,  we  say,  "  a  man,"  not  "an  man:"  when,  then,  do  we 
use  a? 

87.  Before  words  beginning  with  consonants. 

Q.  Which  letters  are  consonants? 

88.  All  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  except  the  vowels, 
which  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u ;  and  also  w  and  y,  except  at  the 
beginning  of  words,  when  they  are  consonants. 

Q.  How,  then,  do  a  and  an  differ? 

89.  Only  in  their  use ;  a  being  used  before  consonants, 
and  an  before  vowels :  both  are  called  by  the  same  name. 

Q.  How  many  articles  do  there  appear  to  be,  and  what  are  they  ? 

90.  Two — a  or  an,  and  the, 

Q.  It  is  customary  to  say,  **  a  boy,"  not  *'  a  hoys  ;"  also,  "  an  inkstand," 
not  **an  hikstands  :^^  ot  what  number,  then,  must  the  noun  be,  before 
which  the  indefinite  article  is  placed  ? 

91.  The  singular  number. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  rule  for  the  indefinite  article? 

RtJIiIS  IZ. 

The  indefinite  article  a  or  an  belongs  to  nouns  of 
the  singular  number. 

Q.  We  can  say,  "  the  boy,"  and  "  the  boys ;"  using  a  noun  either  of  the 
singular  or  plural  number  after  the :  what,  then,  is  the  rule  for  the  definite 
article  ? 

RUIiZS  III. 

The  definite  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  in  the 
singular  or  plural  number. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  The  boy:' 

92.  The  is  an  article,  a  word  placed  before  nouns  to  limit 
their  meaning  —  definite  ;  it  means  a  particular  boy  —  and 
belongs  to  boy,  according  to 

Rule  III.  The  definite  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  of  the 
singular  or  plural  number. 

Boy  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name  —  common  ;  it  is  a  general 
name — masculine  gender  ;  it  is  the  name  of  a  male — third 
PERSON ;  it  is  spoken  of —  and  singular  number  ;  it  means 
but  one. 


ADJECTIVES.  15 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED. 

"  A  hand."     "  An  eagle."  "  The  man."  "  The  boys'  hats." 

«  A  man."     "  An  insect."  "  The  men."  "  A  man's  cap." 

«  A  mite."      "  An  acorn."  «  The  boys."  "  The  girls'  room." 

«  A  month."  "  An  ounce."  "  The  mice."  "  The  lady's  box." 


VIII.  OF  ADJECTIVES 


f 


Q.  When  I  say,  "  John  is  an  obedient,  industrious,  and  good  boy,"  I 
use  certain  words  to  describe  loy  :  which  are  they  ? 

93.  Industrious,  obedient,  and  good. 

Q.  When  1  say,  "  a  good  man,"  to  what  word  is  the  describing  word 
good  joined  or  added  ? 

94.  To  the  noun  man, 

Q.  What  does  the  word  adjective  mean? 

95.  Joined  or  added  to, 

Q.  What,  then,  shall  we  call  such  describing  words  as  good^  obedient ^ 
industrious,  &c.  ? 

96.  Adjectives. 

Q.  What,  then,  are  adjectives  ? 

97.  Adjectives  are  words  joined  to  nouns  to  describe 
or  qualify  them. 

Q.  '*  A  wise  man."     Which  word  is  the  adjective  here,  and  why  ? 
Q.  **  Rufus  is  a  good  boy,  but  James  is  a  better  one."     How  are  Rufus 
and  James  spoken  of  here  ? 

98.  In  comparison  with  each  other. 

Q.  The  adjectives  in  the  last  example  are  good  and  better :  can  you  tell 
me  which  of  these  words  denotes  a  higher  degree  of  excellence  than  the 
other  ? 

99.  The  word  better. 

Q.  What  degree  of  comparison,  then,  shall  we  call  better  i 

100.  Comparative  degree. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  comparative  degree  imply? 

101.  A  comparison  between  two. 

Q.  **  William  is  tall,  Thomas  is  taller,  but  Rufus  is  the  tallest  boy  in 
school."     What  is  meant  here  by  tallest  ? 

102.  Exceeding  all  in  height. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  superlative  mean? 

103.  Exceeding  all ;  the  highest  or  lowest  degree. 

Q.  What  degree  of  comparison,  then,  shall  we  call  tallest  ? 

104.  Superlative  degree. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  superlative  degree  do? 

105.  It  increases  or  lessens  the  positive  to  the  highest 
or  lowest  degree. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  James  is  a  good  boy,"  I  make  no  comparison  between 
him  and  any  other ;  but  simply  assert  in  a  positive  manner,  that  James  is  a 
good  boy.     What  kind  of  a  sentence,  then,  would  you  call  this? 

106.  A  positive  sentence. 

Q.  Of  what  degree  of  comparison,  then,  shall  we  call  good  t 

107.  The  positive  degree. 


16  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  positive  degree  do? 

108.  It  merely  describes,  without  any  comparison. 

Q.  Will  you  compare  great  ? 

109.  " Posz/ive,  great ;  Com^parative,  greater;  Superla- 
tive, greatest." 

Q.  Will  you  compare  wise  in  the  same  manner? 
Q.   Wise  and  great  are  words  of  one  syllable :  how,  then,  are  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  degrees  of  words  of  this  sort  formed  ? 

110.  By  adding  r  or  er,  st  or  est,  to  the  positive. 

Q.  Will  you  in  this  manner  compare  small  ?  high  ?  mean  ?       ^i!^'*''" 
Q.  Will  you  compare  beautiful  ?  * 

111.  "Po5.  beautiful;  Comp.  more  beautiful;  St0.  most 
beautiful." 

Q.  How  many  syllables  compose  the  word  beautiful? 

112.  Three. 

Q.  How,  then,  are  words  of  three,  or  more  syllables  than  one,  usually 
compared  ?  ^ 

113.  By  placing  more  and  most  before  the  positive. 

Q.  Will  you  in  this  manner  compare  induHrious  ?  ingenious  ?  dutiful  ? 
Q.  Will  you  compare  wise,  by  using  the  words  less  and  least  ? 

114.  "Po5.  wise;  Comp,  less  wise;  Sup,  least  wise." 

Q.  Will  you  in  hke  manner  compare  benevolent  ?  distinguished  ?  dilatory  ? 

Q.  *'  Good  men,  better  men,  best  men."  Which  adjective  here  is  trie 
positive,  and  why?  (108.)  Which  the  comparative?  why?  (101.)  Which 
the  superlative?  why  ?  (105.) 

Q.  Good,  you  perceive,  is  not  compared  rep:ularly,  like  great,  beautiful^ 
&c. ;  and  since  there  are  many  words  of  this  deepription,  I  will  give  you  a 
list  of  the  principal  ones,  together  with  others,  regularly  compared :  will  you 
repeat  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees,  as  l^name  the  positive  ? 

115.  Positive,  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Good,  Better,  Best. 

Little,  Less,  Least. 

Much,  or  many,  More,  Most. 

Bad,  ill,  or  evil,  Worse,  Worst. 

Near,  Nearer,  Nearest,  or  next*, 

Old,  Older,  Oldest,  or  eldest. 

Late,  Later,  Latest,  or  last. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing,  how  many  degrees  of  comparison  do  there  appear 
to  be,  and  what  are  they  ? 

116.  Three — the  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 

Q.  Adjectives,  you  recollect,  describe  nouns:  to  what,  then,  do  they 
naturally  belong  ? 

BVZ.ZI  ZV. 

Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  which  they  describe 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  A  wiser  child." 

117.  A  is  an  article,  a  word  placed  before  nouns  to  limit 
their  meaning  —  indefinite  ;  it  means  no  particular  child  — 
and  belongs  to  child,  agreeably  to 

Rule  II.  The  indefinite  article  a  or  an  belongs  to  nouns  of 
the  singular  number. 


PRONOUNS.  17 

Wiser  is  an  adjective,  a  word  joined  with  a  noun  to 
describe  it  —  "  Pos.  wise  ;  Comp,  wiser ;  Sup,  wisest" —  made 
in  the  comparative  degree  —  and  belongs  to  child,  by 

Rule  IV.  Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  which  they  de- 
scribe. 

Child  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name  —  common  ;  it  is  a  general 
name  —  common  gender  ;  it  may  be  either  male  or  female  — 
THIRD  person  ;  it  is  spoken  of —  and  singular  number  ;  it 
means  but  one. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING    CONTINUED. 

1.  2.  3. 

"  A  dutiful  son."      "  An  ugly  child."  "  The  base  man." 

"  An  idle  boy."        "  An  irksome  task."      "  The  whiter  cloth." 
"  A  foolish  son."      "  A  mild  reply."  **  The  milder  weather." 

4.  5. 

"  The  greatest  man."  "  The  more  (1)  benevolent  citizen." 

"  The  wisest  prince."  **  The  most  (1)  suitable  method." 

"  The  noblest  man."  *'  The  least  (1)  distrustful  friend." 

6.  7. 

"  A  large,  convenient,  and  (1)    "  The  last  choice." 

airy  habitation."  "  The  best  man." 

"  The  intelligent,  industrious,    "  The  nearest  relations.'' 

obedient,    and    (1)    docile    "  Johnson's  (2)  large  dictionary." 
scholar."  "  Murray's  small  grammar  " 


IX.  OF  PRONOUNS. 

^.  When  I  say,  "  John  goes  to  school,  John  learns  fast,  and  John  will 
excel,"  how  can  I  speak  so  as  to  avoid  repeating  John  so  often  ? 

118.  By  using  the  word  he  in  its  place;  thus,  "John 
goes  to  school,  he  learns  fast,  and  he  will  excel." 

Q.  What  little  word,  then,  may  stand  for  John  ? 

119.  He. 

^     Q.  What  does  the  word  pronoun  mean  ? 

120.  Standing  for,  or  instead  of,  a  noun, 

Qj  What,  then,  shall  we  call  the  word  he,  above? 

121.  A  PRONOUN. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  pronoun? 

122.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun,  to  avoid  a 
repetition  of  the  same  word. 

Q.  When  James  says,  "  I  will  study,"  you  perceive  that  /  stands  for  the 
person  speaking :  what  person,  then,  is  it  ?  (39.) 

Q.  When  I  say,  **  James,  you  must  study,"  the  word  you  evidently  is 
applied  to  James,  who  is  spoken  to :  what  person,  then,  ought  you  to  be? 

123.  The  second  person. 

1.  To  be  omitted  in  parsing.  2.  Johnson's  is  governed  by  dictionary,  by 
Rule  I. 


18  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "He  (meaning  William)  should  learn,"  what  person 
ought  he  to  be,  and  why  ? 

124.  The  third  person ;  because  it  stands  in  the  place 
of  a  noun  which  is  spoken  of. 

Q.  If  7  invariably  stands  for  the  first  person,  you  for  the  second,  and  he 
for  the  third,  how  can  we  tell  the  different  persons  of  pronouns  ? 

125.  By  the  pronouns  themselves. 

Q.  What  have  these  pronouns  been  called  from  this  ch-cumstance  ? 

126.  Personal  pronouns. 

0:5°  I  will  now  give  you  a  hst  of  all  the  personal  pronouns,  which  you 
must  first  examine  carefully,  and  then  answer  such  questions  on  them  as 
may  be  asked  you. 


DECLENSION  OF  THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.             f 

FIRST   PERSON. 

127.         Sing. 
Norn  A. 

Poss.  My  or  mine. 
Obj.   Me. 

SECOND   PERSON. 

Plur. 
We. 

Ours  or  our. 
Us. 

Sing,                   Sing. 
Norn.  Thou.              ^      C  Noni.  You. 
Poss.  Thy  or  thine.  >or\  Poss.  Your  or 
Ohj.  Thee,              >      (ohj.  You. 

Plur. 
Ye  or  you. 
yours.  Your  or  yours. 
You. 

THIRD    PERSON   MASCULINE. 

Sing.                                         Plur. 
Norn.  He.                                             They. 
Poss.  His.                                            Theirs  or  their. 
Ob}.  Him.                                           Them. 

THIRD    PERSON   FEMININE. 

Sing.                                         Plur. 
Norn.  She.                                            They. 
Poss.  Hers  or  her.                               Theirs  or  their. 
Obj.   Her.                                            Them. 

THIRD    PERSON   NEUTER. 

Sing.                                         Plur. 
Norn.  It.                                                They. 
Poss.  Its.                                               Theirs  or  their.- 
Obj.  It.                                               Them. 

0.  Will  you  decline  I  in  both  numbers  ?  thou  or  you  ?  he  ?  she  ?  it  ? 

Q.  In  wnat  person,  number,  and  case  is  I'i  we?  my?  mine?  our  oi 
ours  ?  me?  us?  thou  ?  ye?  his  ?  they  ?  them ? 

Q.  In  what  gender,  person,  number,  and  case  is  he  ?  she  ?  it  ?  his  ?  hers  ? 
her?  him? 

Q.  How  many  numbers  do  pronouns  appear  to  have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

128.  Two — the  singular  and  plural. 

Q.  How  many  cases,  and  what  are  they? 

129.  Three  —  the  nominative,  the  possessive,  and  the 
objective. 


PRONOUNS.  19 

Q.  How  many  persons? 

130.  Three — the  first,  second,  and  third. 

Q.  How  many  genders? 

131.  Three — the  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter. 

Q.  How  many  pronouns  are  there  in  ail,  of  the  first  person  ? 
0.  How  many  of  the  second,  and  how  many  of  the  third  t 
(5.  The  pronouns  of  the  nominative  case,  singular,  are  called  leading 
pronouns  :  how  many  of  these  are  there  ? 

133.  Five — /,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  it 

Q.  Why  are  not  the  possessive  and  objective  cases  of  the  smgular  and 

{)lural  numbers,  also  the  nominatives  plural,  reckoned  in  the  number  of  the 
eading  pronouns  ? 

134.  Because  they  are  all  considered  as  variations  of 
the  nominative  singular. 

Q.  To  which  of  the  pronouns  is  it  customary  to  apply  gender  ? 

135.  To  the  third  person  singular,  he,  she,  it, 

Q.  Why  are  not  the  first  and  second  persons  each  made  always  to  repre- 
sent a  different  gender  ? 

136.  The  first  and  second  persons  being  always  pre- 
sent, their  genders  are  supposed  to  be  known. 

Q.  If,  as  we  have  seen,  pronouns  stand  for  nouns,  what  gender,  number, 
and  person  ought  they  to  have  ? 

137.  The  same  as  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand. 

Q.  What,  then,  may  be  considered  a  rule  for  the  agreement  of  the  pro- 
nouns ? 

HUIiS  V. 

Pronouns  must  agree  with  the  nouns  for  which  they 
standi  in  gender^  number^  and  person, 

QUESTIONS  ON  PARSING. 
Q.  How  many  different  sorts  of  words  have  we  now  found,  and  what 
are  they  ? 

138.  Four  —  the  Noun,  the  Article,  the  Adjective, 
and  the  Pronoun. 

Q.  The  word  part,  you  know,  means  division  ;  and  speech,  the  power  of 
using  words,  or  language  :  what,  therefore,  shall  we  call  these  grand  divi- 
sions of  words  ? 

139.  Parts  of  Speech. 

Q.  When,  then,  I  ask  you  what  part  ot  speech  hoy  is,  for  instance,  what 
do  you  understand  me  to  mean  ? 

140.  The  same  as  to  ask  me  whether  boy  is  a  noun 
or  not. 

Q»  What  part  of  speech,  then,  is  William,  and  why  ?  (36.) 

1.  "He  went  to  school.'* 

2.  "  She  went  to  her  task." 

3.  "  William  went  to  his  play." 

4.  "  John  returned  from  his  school.** 

5.  "  I  request  you  to  mind  your  studies." 

6.  "  The  book  was  mine,  but  now  it  is  yours.*^ 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  pronouns  in  the  six  foregoing  examples  ? 
O.  How  many  are  there  in  all  ? 

Q.  What  is  the  gender,  number,  and  person  of  those  in  the  first  ?  second? 
third  ?  fourth  ?  fifth  ?  sixth  ? 


20  .  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  What  is  the  {ijender  of  his,  in  the  fourth  sentence  ?  why  ?  (137.)  Its 
number  ?  why  ?  (137.)    Its  person  ?  why  ?  (137.)    Its  case  ?  why  ?  (61.) 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  nouns  in  the  first  sentence  ?  in  the  second  ?  third  ? 
fourth?  fifth?  sixth? 


X.  OF  THE  VERB. 


A 


Q.  When  I  say,  "  James  strikes  WiUiam,"  which  word  tells  what 
James  does  ? 

141.  Strikes. 

Q.  The  word  verb  means  word  ;  and  as  the  words  in  all  sentences,  which 
tell  what  the  nouns  do,  are  the  principal  ones,  what  shall  such  words  be 
called  ? 

142.  Verbs. 

Q.  If,  in  the  phrase,  **  William  strikes  James,"  we  leave  out  the  word 
strikes,  you  perceive  at  once  that  the  sense  is  destroyed  :  what  reason,  then, 
can  you  give,  for  calling  some  words  in  a  sentence  verbs,  and  others  by  a 
different  name  ? 

143.  The  words  which  we  call  verbs  are  the  most 
important. 

Q.  **  William  studies  his  lesson."  Which  word  is  the  verb  here,  and 
why? 

144.  Studies,  because  it  tells  what  William  does. 

Q.  When  I  say,  **  John  dances,"  which  word  is  the  verb,  and  why  ? 
Q.  When  I  say,  "  James  strikes  John,"  which  word  shows  that  an 
action  is  performed? 

145.  Strikes, 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  verb,  then,  shall  we  call  strikes  ? 

146.  An  active  verb. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  verb  is  walks,  in  this  sentence,  **  John  walks,"  and 
why? 

147.  Walks  is  an  active  verb,  because  it  expresses 
action. 

Q.  *'He  beat  William."  Which  word  here  is  the  verb?  Is  William 
an  agent  or  an  object  ? 

148.  An  object. 

Q.  When  I  say,  **  The  child  walks,"  walks,  it  is  true,  is  an  active  verb, 
■fbut  it  has  no  noun  after  it  for  an  object,  as  beat  has,  in  the  phrase  above  ; 
^^ neither  can  we  supply  one;  for  we  cannot  say,  *'  The  child  walks,"  any 

thing:  what,  therefore,  is  to  be  inferred  from  this  fact,  in  regard  to  the 

nattire  of  active  verbs  ? 

149.  That  some  active  verbs  will  take  nouns  after  them 
for  objects,  and  others  will  not. 

Q.  We  will  next  notice  this  difference.     The  term  transitive  means  pass- 
^     ing  over  ;  and  when  I  say,  *'  William  whips  Charles,"  the  verb  whips  shows 
that  the  action  which  William  performs,  passes  over  to  Charles  as  the  object. 
What  kind  of  a  verb,  then,  shall  we  call  whips  ? 

150.  An  active-transitive  verb. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  an  active-transitive  verb  ? 

151.  It  is  one  that  either  has,  or  may  have,  an  object 
after  it. 

Q.  Walks,  we  found,  would  not  take  an  object  after  it ;  and,  as  intransi' 
live  means  not  passmg  over,  what  shall  wo  call  such  verbs  as  walks  ? 


VERBS.  21 

152.  Active-intransitive  verbs. 

(^.  What,  then,  is  an  active-intransitive  verb? 

153.  An  active-intransitive  verb  is  one  that  expresses 
action,  but  will  not  take  an  object  after  it. 

Q.  When  I  say,  *'  He  eats  it,"  '*  He  beats  him,"  we  immediately  deter- 
mine that  heaU  and  eats  are  active-transitive  verbs,  by  the  objects  after 
them :  how,  then,  may  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  be  distinguished  ? 

154.  When  we  can  place  him  or  it  after  any  active 
verb,  and  make  sense,  it  is  transitive;  otherwise,  it  is 
intransitive. 

Q.  *'  James  remains  at  home — sleeps  at  home  —  is  at  home."  Which 
words  are  the  verbs  here  ? 

155.  Remains,  sleeps,  and  is. 

Q.  These  verbs  do  not  imply  action,  Uke  strikes,  heats,  &c. :  what  do 
they  imply  ? 

156.  Existence,  rest,  or  being,  in  a  certain  state. 

Q.  These  verbs,  and  others  of  similar  character,  have  been  called  neuter 
(signifying  neither)  by  grammarians,  because  they  are  neither  active  nor 
passive.  On  a  future  occasion,  I  will  make  you  fully  acquainted  with  a 
passive  verb.  It  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose,  that  you  perceive  the 
reason  of  the  nahie  of  the  neuter  verb.     What  is  a  neuter  verb  ? 

y    157.  A  neuter  verb  is  one  that  simply  implies  being  or 
existence  in  a  certain  state. 

Q.  Will  you  inform  me  now,  in  general  terms,  what  is  a  correct  defini 
tion  of  a  verb  ? 

158.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  action  or  being. 

Q.  When  I  say,  **  I  strike,"  in  what  number  and  person  is  strike,  and 
why? 

159.  Strike  is  of  the  first  person  singular,  because  its 
agent,  /,  is  of  this  person  ^d  number. 

Q.  Hence  you  may  perceive,  tH(H|erbs,  in  themselves  considered,  do  not 
have  person  and  number :  why,  thOT,  are  they  said  to  have  these  properties 
at  all  ? 

160.  On  account  of  the  connection  which  they  have 
with  their  agents  or  nominatives. 

Q.  We  say.  "  I  write,"  and  **  He  writes ;"  hence  you  perceive  that  the 
ending  of  the  verb  varies,  as  its  agent  or  nominative  varies :  what,  then, 
will  be  the  rule  for  the  nominative  case  ? 

RVZiZS  VZ. 

The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  number 
and  person. 

Q.  If  the  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  number  and  person,  in 
what  respect  must  the  verb  agree  with  its  nominative  case  ? 

HUIiS  VZI. 

A  verb  must  agree  with   its   nominative  case  in 
number  and  person. 

Q.  When  I  say,  '*  James  beats  him,"  the  pronoun  Am  is  the  object  of 
the  action  denoted  by  heats,  and  is,  therefore,  in  the  objective  case :  what, 
then,  will  be  a  good  rule  for  the  objective  case  after  active  verbs  ? 

Rxrzizs  VIZI. 

Active'transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case. 


22  V^NGLI^H    •iR*AMMAK. 

Q.  1  will  now  give  you  tne  different  endings  of  the  verb  love,  in  its  dif- 
ferent numbers  and  persons.     Will  you  repeat  them  ? 

Singular^  Plural, 

161.  First  person,      I  lovev  First  person,      We  love. 

Second  person.  You  love.     Second  person.  You  love. 
Third  person,    He  loves.     Third  person.    They  love. 
t  Q,  Will  you  repeat  the  variations  of  am  ? 
r*  Singular.  Plural. 

^  162.  1  Pers.  I  am.  1  Pers.  We  are. 

2  Pers.  You  are.  2  Pers.  You  are. 

3  Pers.  He  is.  3  Pers.  They  are. 

t^.  Will  you  repeat,  in  the  same  manner,  the  variations  of  hate  t  desire  t 
readt 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

'■  J  study  my  lesson,'* 

163.  J  is  a  PRONOUN,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — per- 
sonal ;  it  always  denotes  the  same  person,  (the  first)  —  first 
person;  it  denotes  the  speaker  —  singular  number;  it 
means  but  one  —  "  Norn.  I"  —  made  in  the  nominative  case 
to  study,  according  to 

Rule  VI.  The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  number 
and  person. 

Study  is  a  verb  ;  it  expresses  action  —  transitive  ;  it  ad- 
mits an  object  after  it  —  "1  Pers.  I  study" —  made  in  the 
first  person  —  SINGULAR  NUMBER,  bocausc  its  nominativo  1 
is,  with  which  it  agrees,  agreeably  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  person.  ^. 

My  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  us^pfor  a  noun  —  personal  ;  it  % 
always  represents  the  same  person  —  first  person  ;  it  repre- 
sents the  person  speaking  —  "  Nom.  I ;  Poss.  my,  or  mine" — 
made  in  the  possessive  case  —  and  governed   by  the   noun 
lesson,  according  to 

Rule  I.  TTie  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following 
noun* 

Lesson  is  a  noun — common  ;  it  is  a  general  name — neuter 
gender  ;  it  is  neither  male  nor  female  —  third  person  ;  it  is 
spoken  of — singular  number  ;  it  means  but  one — and  in  the 
objective  case  ;  it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  study,  and 
governed  by  it,  according  to 

Rule  VIII.  Active-transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case, 

EJPRCISES   IN    parsing   CONTINUED. 

TVansitive  Verbs. 

"  I  lament  mf  faie.**  .  "  He  found  a  dollar." 

"  You  regard  your  friends."  "  She  attends  the  school." 

"  We  desire  your  improvement.''  "  It  retards  the  work." 

«*  We  love  our  children."  "  They  shun  vice." 

"  You  make  a  knife."  "  Ye  derive  comlbrL" 


V.ERBS.  23 

2. 

"  I  love  him."  "  She  forsook  you." 

"  I  lament  her."  "  They  annoy  me." 

"  You  assist  them."  "  We  took  it." 

"  He  struck  her."  "  She  relieved  us." 

"  John  reads  his  book.^* 

His  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun  •—  per- 
sonal ;  it  uniformly  stands  for  the  same  person  —  masculine 
gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  because  the  noun 
John  is,  vi^ith  which  it  agrees,  agreeably  to 

Rule  V.  Pronouns  must  agree  with  the  nouns  for  which 
they  stand,  in  gender,  number,  and  person, 

"  Nom.  he ;  Poss,  his" —  made  in  the  possessive  case  — 
and  governed  by  the  noun  book,  according  to 

Rule  I.  The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following 
noun, 

iCf'  The  remaining  words,  book,  reads,  and  John,  are  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING    CONTINUED. 

3. 

"  Mary  studies  her  lesson."  "  Virtue  rewards  its  followers." 

"  The  girls  love  their  books."  "  A  disobedient  son  grieves  his 
"Good     children      mind      their  parents." 

parents."  "  The  intemperate  man  loves  his 
"  Sin  deceives  its  votaries."  dram." 

HJ"  In  parsing  personal  pronouns,  we  do  not  apply  Rule  V.  unless  the  nouns  for 
which  they  stand  are  expressed. 

Intransitive  Verbs, 
4. 
"  I  walk."  **  Y6u  smile."  "  John  swims." 

"  James  runs."  "  They  wink."  "  Birds  fly." 

"  William  hops."  "  We  dance."  "  Lions  roar." 

Neuter  Verbs, 
"William  is  (1.)  discreet."  (2.)    " John's  wife  is  fortunate." 
"  James  is  happy."  "  John's  brother  is  unhappy." 

'*  He  was  studious."  "  The  eagle's  flight  was  sudden." 

"  He  became  intemperate."  "  The  scholar's  duty  is  plain." 

"  Thou  art  wise."  "  The  judge's  pay  is  sufficient." 


XL  INDICATIVE  MOOD— TENSE. 

Q.  When  James  says,  "  I  will  learn,"  he  evidently  means,  by  his  man- 
ner of  speaking,  to  express  his  intention  to  learn ;  but  when  he  says,  "  I 
can  learn,"  what  does  he  mean  ? 

: — — : ■ ^ : 

^  (I.)  Is  is  a  VERB  ;  it  implies  being — neuter  ;  it  is  neither  active  nor  pas- 
sive, but  expresses  being,  merely — '*  1  pers.  I  am  ;  2  pers.  You  are  ;  3  vers. 
He,  or  William  is"— made  in  the  third  person,  singular,  because  Wil- 
liam, its  nominative,  is,  and  agrees  with  William,  according  to 

Rule  VH.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in  number  a?id person, 

(2.)  Discreet  belongs  to  William,  by  Rule  IV. 


24  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

165.  That  he  has  the  ability  to  learn. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  mood  mean? 

166.  Mood  means  manner, 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  mood  of  verbs  denote  ? 

167.  The  different  manner  of  representing  actions. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  indicative  mean? 

168.  Declaring  or  showing. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  WilUam  has  studied,*'  I  declare  some  fact:  m  what 
mood,  then,  shall  we  class  has  studied  ? 

169.  In  the  indicative  mood. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Has  William  studied?"  the  only  difference  between 
this  phrase  and  the  foregoing  consists  in  a  change  in  the  order  of  the  words, 
so  as  to  show  that  a  question  is  asked :  in  what  mood,  then,  shall  we  call 
has  William  studied  ? 

170.  Indicative  mood. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  indicative  mood  used  for? 

171.  The  indicative  mood  is  used  for  asserting,  indi- 
cating or  declaring  a  thing,  or  asking  a  question. 

Q.  In  what  mood  is,  ''They  do  sing?"  Why?  (171.) 
Q.  What  does  the  word  tense  mean? 

172.  Tense  means  time, 

Q.  What  does  present  mean  ? 

173.  Present  means  now. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  The  bird  sings,"  I  mean  that  the  bird  sings  now :  in 
what  tense,  then,  is  sings  ? 

174.  In  the  present  tense. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  present  tense  used  for? 

175.  The  present  tense  is  used  to  express  what  is  now 
taking  place. 

Q.  In  what  tense  is,  ''The  do^  runs?"  Why?  (175.) 
Q.  "James  wrote."     "James  has  written."     These  phrases  denote 
what  is  past :  in  what  tense  are  they  ? 

176.  In  the  past  tense. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  future  mean ;  as,  "  At  some  future  time  ?" 

177.  Future  meaas  yet  to  come, 

Q.  In  what  tense  are  the  phrases,  "  I  will  come,"  "  I  shall  have  come  ?" 

178.  In  the  future  tense. 

Q.  How  many  grand  divisions  of  time  do  there  appear  to  be,  and  what 
are  they  ? 

179.  Three — the  present,  past,  and  future. 

Q  When  I  say,  "  John  wrote,"  is  the  action  here  spoken  of  past  and 
finished  ? 

180.  It  is. 

Q.  What  does  imperfect  mean? 

181.  Unfinished,  or  incomplete. 

Q.  "  John  was  writing  when  I  saw  him."  This  denotes  an  action  un- 
finished in  past  time,  and  corresponds  with  what  is  usually  denominated  in 
Latin  the  imperfect  tense :  hence  the  origin  of  the  name  selected  by  English 
jrammarians  to  denote  action  past  and  finished  ;  a  term  not  all  significant  of 
m  action  finished  in  past  time  :  what,  then,  does  the  imperfect  tense  express  ? 

182.  The  imperfect  tense  expresses  what  took  place  in 
past  time,  however  distant. 

Q.  "  Peter  wrote  yesterday,  and  has  written  to-day."     Here  both  acts  of 


VERBS.  25 

writing  are  past  and  finished ;  but  which  has  more  immediate  reference  to 
the  present  time  ? 

183.  Has  written. 

Q.  To  distinguish  this  tense  from  the  imperfect,  grammarians  have  called 
it  the  perfect  tense :  what,  then,  will  the  perfect  tense  express  ? 

184.  The  perfect  tense  expresses  what  has  taken  place, 
and  also  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present  time. 

Q.  "James  had  read  before  I  wrote."  Here,  both  acts  are  past  and 
finished  ;  but  which  took  place  first  ? 

185.  The  act  of  reading. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  pluperfect  mean  ? 

186.  More  than  the  perfect 

Q.  What  tense,  then,  shall  we  call,  "James  had  read?" 

187.  The  pluperfect  tense.  • 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  pluperfect  tense  express  ? 

188.  The  pluperfect  tense  expresses  wliat  had  taken 
place  at  or  before  some  past  time  mentioned. 

Q.  "  John  will  come."  This,  you  know,  was  called  the  future  tense  : 
can  you  tell  me  why  ? 

189.  Because  it  implies  time  to  come. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  future  tense  express? 

190.  The  future  tense  expresses  what  will  take  place 
hereafter. 

Q.  "  I  shall  have  learned  my  lesson  by  noon."  Here,  an  action  is  to 
take  place  at  a  future  time  specified  or  mentioned ;  and  since  we  already 
have  one  future  tense,  we  will  call  that  the  first,  and  this  the  second  future 
tense  :  what,  then,  will  the  second  future  tense  express  ? 

191.  The  second  future  expresses  *what  will  have  taken 
place  at  or  before  some  future  time  mentioned. 

Q.  What  does  synopsis  mean? 

192.  A  concise  and  general  view, 

Q.  I  will  now  present  you  with  a  synopsis  of  all  the  diflferent  tenses 
illustrated  by  the  verb  learn  :  will  you  repeat  it  ? 


193.  Pres.  tense,       I  learn,  or  do  learn. 
Imp,  tense,        I  learned,  or  did  learn. 
Perf,  tense,       I  have  learned. 
'  Plup,  tense,       I  had  learned. 

1st  Fut.  tense,  1  shall  or  will  learn. 
.  2d  Fut,  tense,   I  shall  have  learned. 

{fCr  You  shall  next  have  the  different  variations  of  the  foregoing  verb,  in 
each  tense  of  the  indicative  mood :  these  I  wish  you  to  study  very  carefully, 
that  you  may  be  able  to  answer  the  questions  which  will  then  be  asked  you. 

191.         To  learn. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1  Pers.  I  learn.  1  Per 8,  We  learn. 

2  Pers.  You  learn.  2  Pers,  You  learn. 

3  Pers.  He,  she,  or  it  learns.  3  Pers,  They  learn. 

3  c 


26 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 
OR, 


When  we  wish  to  express  energy  or  positiveness,  thus — 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  do  learn.  1.  We  do  learn. 

2.  You  do  learn.  2.  You  do  learn. 

3.  He  does  learn.  3.  They  do  learn. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE. 

Plural 
1.  We  learned. 


Singular. 

1.  I  learned. 

2.  You  learned. 

3.  He  learned. 

Singular, 

1.  I  did  learn. 

2.  You  did  learn. 

3.  He  did  learn. 

Singular, 

1.  I  have  learned. 

2.  You  have  learned. 

3.  He  has  learned. 

Singular, 

1.  I  had  learned. 

2.  You  had  learned. 

3.  He  had  learned. 


OB, 


2.  You  learned. 

3.  They  learned. 

Plural. 

1.  We  did  learn. 

2.  You  did  learn. 

3.  They  did  learn. 

PERFECT   TENSE. 

Plural. 

1.  We  have  learned. 

2.  You  have  learned. 

3.  They  have  learned. 

PLUPERFECT   TENSE. 

Plural. 

1.  We  had  learned. 

2.  You  had  learned. 

3.  They  had  learned. 


FIRST  FUTURE   TENSE. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  leatn.  1.  We  shall  or  will  learn. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  learn.  2.  You  shall  or  will  learn. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  learn.  3.  They  shall  or  will  learn. 


FUTURE   TENSE. 

Plural. 

1.  We  shall  have  learned. 

2.  You  will  have  learned. 

3.  They  will  have  learned. 

*^*  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  choose  to  retain  the  second  person  singu- 
lar, as  given  in  former  treatises,  the  following  synopsis  is  inserted. 


SECOND 
Singular. 

1.  I  shall  have  learned. 

2.  You  will  have  learned. 

3.  He  will  have  learned. 


SYNOPSIS. 

195.  2d  Pers,  Sing,  Pres,       Thou  learnest,  or  dost  learn. 


2d  Pers.  Sing.  Imp, 
2d  Pers,  Sing,  Perf, 
2d  Pers.  Sing.  Plup. 
2d  Pers.  Sing.  1st  Fut, 
2d  Pers.  Sing.  2d  Fut. 

Q.  In  what  mood  is,  *'  I  learn  ?" 
(175.)    In  what  mood  and  tense  is, 


Thou  learnedst,  or  didst  learn. 
Thou  hast  learned. 
Thou  hadst  learned. 
Thou  shalt  or  wilt  learn. 
Thou  wilt  have  learned. 


Why?  (171.) 
He  learns?" 


learn ?"    "I  have  learned ?"    "I  had  learned 
*'  I  shall  have  learned  ?" 

Q.  In  what  person  and  number  is,  "I  learn ?" 
learn  ?"  "  They  had  learned  ?"   "He  shall  learn  V 

Q.  What  does  the  word  auxiliary  mean? 

196.  Auxiliary  means  helping. 


In  what  tense  ?  Why  ? 

**  We  learn?"    **Idid 

"  I  shall  or  will  learn  ?" 

**  You  learn?"     "We 
'  "We  had  learned?" 


VERBS.  27 

Q.  In  the  phrase,  **  I  will  sing,"  will,  you  perceive,  is  used  to  help  form 
the  future  tense  o(sing  :  will  is,  therefore,  called  an  auxiliary  verb,  and  the 
verb  sing  is  reckoned  the  principal  verb  :  what,  then,  are  auxiliary  verbs  ? 

197.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  by  the  help  of  which 
are  formed  the  different  tenses,  moods,  &c.  of  the  prin- 
cipal verbs. 

Q.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  not  unfrequently  denominated  the  signs  of  the 
tenses,  because  each  tense  has,  in  general,  an  auidhajy  peculiar  to  itself: 
what,  then,  is  the  sign  of  the  second  future  ? 

198.  Shall  or  will  have. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  first  future  ? 

199.  Shall  or  will. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  pluperfect  ? 

200.  Had. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  perfect  ? 

201.  Have. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  imperfect  ? 

202.  Did. 

Q.  We  can  sav,  *'  I  did  strike  yesterday,"  or,  "  Istruck  yesterday  ?"  how, 
then,  can  we  tell  when  a  verb  is  in  the  imperfect  tense  without  the  sign  did  ? 

203.  If  we  can  place  yesterday  after  the  verb,  and 
make  sense,  it  is  in  the  imperfect  tense. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  present  tense  ? 

204.  Do,  or  the  first  form  of  the  verb. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing,  how  many  tenses  does  the  indicative  mood  appear 
to  have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

205.  Six  —  the  present,  the  imperfect,  the  perfect,  the 
pluperfect,  the  first  and  second  future  tenses. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  TTiey  have  arrived.^' 

206.  They  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun  — 
PERSONAL  ;  it  always  represents  the  same  person  —  third 
PERSON ;  it  denotes  the  persons  spoken  of— plural  ;  it  means 
more  than  one  —  "  Nom,  he ;  Poss.  his  ;  Obj,  him.  Plural. 
Norn,  they" —  made  in  the  nominative  case  to  have  arrived^ 
according  to 

Rule  VI.  The  nominative  case  governs  the  verh. 
Have  arrived  is  a  verb,  a  word  that  implies  action  or  being 
—  active  ;  it  implies  action  —  intransitive  ;  it  does  not 
admit  of  an  object — indicative  mood  ;  it  simply  indicates  or 
declares  a  thing  —  perfect  tense  ;  it  expresses  what  has  just 
taken  place — "  1.  I  have  arrived ;  2,  You  have  arrived ;  3.  He 
has  arrived.  Plural,  1.  We  have  arrived;  2.  You  have 
arrived ;  3.  They  have  arrived" —  made  in  the  third  person 
PLURAL,  because  its  nominative  they  is,  and  agrees  with  it, 
according  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verh  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  jperscm. 


28  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES    IN    PARSING    CONTINUED. 
1. 

"They  had  come."  "The  sun  has  risen." 

"  We  did  go."  "  Dogs  will  fight." 

"  The  bird  will  return."  "  Lions  will  roar." 

2. 

"  James  loves  William."  "  Columbus  discovered  America." 

"  Susan  beats  him."  "  Piety  promotes  our  happiness." 

**I  have  beaten  them."  "  He  will  learn  his  lesson." 

"  She  had  beaten  us."  "  John  did  make  great  progress." 

"You  shall  assist  him."  "They  do  study  their  lessons." 

"  It  did  disturb  me."  "  Boys  love  sport." 

8. 

"  Do  I  disturb  you  ]"  "  Shall    I    expect    your    assist- 

"Did  they  learn  their  lessons'!"  ance?" 

"  Have  they  recited  ?"  "  Will  a  virtuous  citizen  commit 

"Does  the  instructer  teach  us?"  such  (L)  acts?" 

"  Had  he  dismissed  him  1"  "  Have  you  found  your  knife  ]" 


Xn.  POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Q.  What  does,  "He  may  write,"  imply? 

207.  Permission  or  liberty  to  write. 

Q.  What  does,  '*  He  must  write,"  imply? 

208.  Necessity  of  writing. 

Q.  What  does,  "He  can  write,"  imply? 

209.  Power  or  ability  to  write. 

Q.  What  does,  "He  should  write,"  imply? 

210.  Duty  or  obligation  to  write. 

Q.  What  does,  "He  would  write,"  imply? 

211.  Will  or  inclination  to  write. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  potential  mean  ? 

212.  Mle,  or  poiverfuL 

Q.  In  what  mood,  then,  do  grammarians  reckon  can  learn,  may  write, 
and,  also,  must  write,  should  write,  &c.  ? 

213.  In  the  potential  mood. 

Q.  Why  are  all  these  different  forms  of  representing  actions  considered 
to  be  in  the  potential  mood,  a  name,  as  we  have  seen,  peculiar  only  to  that 
form  of  the  verb  which  implies  power  ? 

214.  To  prevent  multiplying  moods  to  a  great  and 
almost  numberless  extent. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  potential  mood  imply  ? 

215.  The  potential  mood  implies  possibility,  liberty, 
power,  will,  obligation,  or  necessity. 

Q.  What  are  the  signs  of  this  mood  ? 

216.  May,  can,  must,  might,  could,  icould,  and  should. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  conjugation  mean? 
(1.)  Adjective. 


VERBS.  29 

217.  Uniting y  combining,  or  joining  together. 

Q.  You  recollect  that,  in  varying  the  verb,  we  ioined  the  pronouns  with 
it ;  hence,  thb»  exercise  is  called  conjugation  :  what,  then,  do  you  under- 
stand by  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 

218.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combi- 
nation and  arrangement  of  its  several  moods,  tenses, 
numbers,  and  persons. 

219.     Conjugation  of  the  verb  Learn. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  learn.  1.  We  may,  can,  or  must  learn. 

2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  learn.         2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  learn. 

3.  He  may,  can,  or  must  learn.  3.  They  may,  can,  or  must  learn. 

IMPERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  1.  We     might,    could,    would,    or 

learn.  should  learn. 

2.  You    might,    could,  would,  or  2.  You    might,    could,    would,    w 

should  learn.  should  learn. 

3.  He     might,    could,    would,   or  3.  They    might,    could,  would,  or 

should  learn.  should  learn. 

PERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I     may,    can,    or    must    have      1.  We    may,   can,   or    must    have 

learned.  learned. 

2.  You    may,  can,  or  must  have      2.  You    may,   can,  or  must  have 

learned.  learned. 

3.  He    may,    can,   or  must  have      3.  They  may,   can,  or  must  have 

learned.  learned. 

PLUPERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should      1.  We    might,     could,    would,    or 

have  learned.  should  have  learned. 

2.  You    might,   could,  would,  or      2.  You    might,    could,    would,    or 

should  have  learned.  should  have  learned. 

3.  He    might,    could,    would,    or      3.  They  might,   could,   would,    or 

should  have  learned.  should  have  learned. 

Synopsis  of  the  Second  Person  Singular ,  icith  Thou. 
220. 

Pres,  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  learn. 

Imp.    Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  learn. 

Perf.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  have  learned. 

Plwp.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  learned. 
O.  In  what  mood  is,  "I  may  learn?"  Why?  (215.) 
Q.  Will  you  repeat  the  synopsis  with  II  thou  ?  he'i  we?  ve?  you  ?  they  f 
Q.  In  what  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person,  is,  "  I  can  learn  ?"  **  You 

may  learn  ?"    "  You  might  assist  ?"    '*  They  could  have  learned  ?**    "He 

must  study?" 

Q.  In  what  mood  and  tense  is,  "Ihave  learned?"  "He  shall  run? 

"William  did  sing?" 

Q.  Will  you  conjugate  lear?i  in  the  present  tense,  potential  mood  ?  Will 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

you  conjugate  love  in  the  same  mood,  and  imperfect  tense  ?    Strikcy  in  the 
perfect  tense  ?     Come,  in  the  pluperfect  tense  ? 
Q.  How  many  tenses  has  the  potential  mood? 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  He  may  return.'* 
221.  He  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun  — 
personal;  it  invariably  represents  the  same  person — mascu- 
line GENDER  ;  it  represents  a  male  —  third  person  ;  it  de- 
notes the  person  spoken  of — singular  number  ;  it  implies  but 
one  —  and  in  the  nominative  case  ;  it  denotes  the  agent  — 
"  Nom.  Ae" — nominative  case  to  may  return,  by 

Rule  VI.   The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb. 

May  return  is  a  verb  ;  it  implies  action  or  being — active  ; 
it  implies  adtion  —  intransitive  ;  it  does  not  admit  an  object 
after  it  —  potential  mood  ;  it  implies  possibility,  liberty,  &c. 
— PRESENT  TENSE  ;  it  dcnotcs  what  may  be  now  —  "  1.  I  may 
or  can  return ;  2.  You  may  or  can  return ;  3.  He  may  or  can 
return" —  made  in  the  third  person,  singular,  because  its 
nominative  he  is,  with  which  it  agrees,  according  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  person. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED. 
1. 

**  He  may  come."  **  Boys  may  learn  arithmetic." 

"  He  might  retire."  "  The  wind  may  have  shaken  the 
"  John  can  assist  me."  trees." 

"  William    must   obey    his    in-  "  The  lady  could  have  procured 

structer."  ,  her  fan." 

"  We  may  have  erred.  "James  may  catch  the  thief." 

"  John's  father  would  go."  "  They  might  learn." 

2. 

**I  do  rejoice."  "The  committee  will  visit  the 
"We  do  learn."  school." 

"  John  will  resume  his  task."  "  An    idle    boy    will    find    pov- 
"  An  industrious  boy  will  be  rich."  erty." 


Xni.  CONJUGATION  OF  THE  NEUTER  VERB 
To  be. 

222.  When  I  say,  "  I  am  at  home,"  you  know  that  am  is  a  verb,  because 
it  implies  being  or  existence ;  and  since  to  be  means  to  exists  the  verb  am 
has  been  called  the  verb  to  he. 

223.    INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  am.  1.  We  are. 

2.  You  are.  2.  You  are. 

3.  He  is.  3.  They  are. 


VERBS.  31 

IMPERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular,  Plural, 

t,  I  was.  1.  We  were. 

2.  You  were.  2.  You  were. 

3.  He  was.  3.  They  were. 

PERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  have  been.  1.  We  have  been. 

2.  You  have  been.  2.  You  have  been. 

3.  He  has  been.  3.  They  have  been. 

PLUPERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  had  been.  1.  We  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been.  2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

FIRST  FUTURE   TENSE. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be.  1.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be.  2.  You  shall  or  will  be. 

3.  He  shaU  or  will  be.  3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

SECOND  FUTURE   TENSE. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  You  will  have  been.  2.  You  will  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have  been.  3.  They  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  be.  1.  We  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  be.  2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

3.  He  may,  can,  or  must  be.  3.  They  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

IMPERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should      1.  We    might,    could,    would,    or 

be.  should  be. 

2.  You    might,    could,  would,  or      2.  You    might,    could,    would,    or 

should  be.  should  be. 

3.  He     might,    could,    would,   or      3.  They    might,    could,  would,  or 

should  be.  should  be. 

PERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I    may,    can,    or    must    have      1.  We    may,  can,  or   must    have 

been.  been. 

2.  You    may,  can,  or  must  have      2.  You    may,   can,  or  must  hava 

been.  been. 

3.  He    may,    can,  or  must  have      3.  They  may,  can,  or  must  hav8 

been.  been. 

PLUPERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should      1.  We    might,    could,    would,    or 

have  been.  should  have  been. 

2.  You    might,   could,  would,  or      2.  You    might,    could,    would,    or 

should  haVe  been.  should  have  been. 

3.  He    might,    could,    would,    or      3.  They  might,   could,  would,    or 

should  have  been.  should  have  been. 


32  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

224.     Synopsis  of  the  Second  Person  Singular,  with  Thou. 

INDICATIVE  mood/  POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Pres,    Thou  art.  Pres.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  be. 

Imp.     Thou  wast.  Imp,    Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst^ 

Perf,    Thou  hast  been.  or  should st  be. 

Plup,    Thou  hadst  been.         Perf.  Thou    mayst,  canst,  or  must 

1  ISit,  Thou   shalt  or  wilt  have  been. 

be.  Plup.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst, 

2  Fut.  Thou  wilt  have  been.  or  shouldst  have  been. 


XIV.  QUESTIONS  ON  THE  FOREGOING  CONJUGATION. 

Q.  Why  is  am.  a  verb  ?  (158.)  What  is  it  sometimes  called  ?  (222.)  Why 
is  it  so  called  ?  (222.) 

Q.  Will  you  give  the  synopsis  of  the  verb  to  he  with  I  through  the  indica- 
tive mood  ? 

Q.  Will  you  conjugate  am  in  the  present  indicative  ?  Imperfect  ?  Perr 
feet  ?  Pluperfect  ?  1  Future  ?  2  Future  ?  Present  potential  ?  Imper- 
fect?    Perfect?     Pluperfect? 

Q.  In  what  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person,  is,  "I  am  ?"  **  Am  I?" 
"You  were?"  "I  have  been?"  "Have  you  been?"  "He  may  or  can 
be?"  "We  should  be?"  "He  may  have  been?"  "They  should  have 
been  ?"  ""Thou  shouldst  have  been  ?"  "  Thou  mayst  be  ?" 

Q.  Will  you  repeat  the  synopsis  with  tliov,  ? 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  The  girls  were  industrious,^' 

225.  Were  is  a  verb  ;  it  implies  action  or  being — neuter  ; 
it  is  neither  active  nor  passive,  expressing  simply  being  — 
INDICATIVE  MOOD ;  it  Simply  indicates  or  declares  a  thing  — 
IMPERFECT  TENSE ;  it  exprcsscs  past  time — "  1.  I  was  ;  2.  You 
were :  3.  He  was.  Plur,  1.  We  were ;  2.  You  were ;  3.  They 
w^ere,  or  girls  were" — made  in  the  third  person  plural,  be- 
cause its  nominative  girls  is,  with  which  it  agrees,  agreeably  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  person. 

Industrious  is  an  adjective,  a  word  joined  with  a  noun  to 
describe  it  —  "  industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious" 
— in  the  positive  degree  ;  it  describes,  without  any  compari- 
son— and  belongs  to  the  noun  girls,  according  to 

Rule  IV.  Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  which  they  de- 
scribe, 

S5"  For  the  and  girls,  apply  Rules  III.  and  VI. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED, 

"  William  is  attentive."  "  Am  I  young  1"  • 

"  John  is  studious."  "  Was  I  wrong  V 

"  We  are  jealous."  "  Have  we  been  wicked  1" 

"  Thou  art  dutiful."  "  Were  they  penitent  ?" 


ADVERBS.  33 

**  Mary  has  been  intelligent."  "  Washington  was  patriotic." 

"  The  boys  will  have  been  dutiful."    "  Columbus  was  enterprising." 
"  Their  estate  was  small."  "  My  wife's  mother  is  sick." 


XV.  OF  THE  ADVERB. 

Q.  When  I  say,  **  The  bird  flies  swiftly,"  I  do  not  mean  by  swiftly  to 
describe  bird  :  what  does  swiftly  describe  ? 

226.  The  manner  of  flying. 

Q.  To  what  part  of  speech  is  swiftly  ioined  in  the  phrase,  "  The  bird 
flies  swiftly?" 

227.  To  the  verb  flies. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  adverb  signify  ? 

228.  Joined  to  a  verb. 

Q.  What,  then,  shall  we  call  all  such  words  as  swiftly? 

229.  Adverbs. 

Q.  **  John  runs  very  swiftly."  Which  word  here  describes  or  shows 
how  swiftly  John  runs? 

230.  Verij. 

Q.  What  is  the  word  very  called,  and  all  such  words  as  qualify  or  de- 
scribe adverbs  ? 

231.  Adverbs. 

Q.  "  Industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious."  What  are  more 
and  most  called  here,  and  why  ? 

232.  Adverbs,  because  they  describe  or  qualify  adjec- 
tives. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  particulars,  what  appears  to  be  a  proper  definition 
of  adverbs  ? 

233.  Adverbs  are  words  joined  to  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
other  adverbs,  to  qualify  or  describe  them. 

Q.  **  John  visits  me  often,  but  Thomas  oftener^  In  this  example,  we 
see  that  adverbs  may  be  compared :  will  you,  therefore,  compare  soon  ? 

234.  "  Soon,  sooner,  soonest." 

Q.  Will  you  compare  wisely'? 

235.  "  Wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wisely." 

Q.  How  do  adverbs  ending  in  ly  appear  to  be  compared? 

236.  By  the  adverbs  more  and  most 

0.  Will  you  in  this  manner  compare  admirably  ?  foolishly  ? 

Q.  Many  adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  as  soon 
above  ;  but  therd  is  a  very  considerable  number,  the  comparison  of  which 
is  not  regulated  by  any  general  rule.  The  following  list  embraces  adverbs 
variously  compared:  will  you  repeat  the  comparative  and  superlative  of 
each,  as  I  name  the  positive  ? 

237.  Positive. 

Often, 
Much, 
Well, 
Soon, 
Justly, 
Wisely, 
Justly, 
Badly,  or  ill, 
,  3 


Comparative. 
oftener, 

Superlative. 
oftenest. 

more. 

most. 

better, 

best. 

sooner, 

soonest. 

more  justly, 
more  wisely, 

most  justly, 
most  wisely. 

less  justly, 

least  justly. 

worse. 

worst. 

34  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

238.  JVbf*.— Adverbs,  though  very  numerous,  may  nevertheless  be  reduced  to  a  few 
classes.  You  will  now  read  with  attention  the  following  list,  and  I  will  then  ask 
you  some  questions  respecting  each  class. 

1.  Of  number:  as,  "  Once,  twice,  thrice,"  &c. 

2.  Of  order:  as,  "  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  fifthly,  lastly,  finally,"  &c. 

3.  Of  place:  as,  "Here,  there,  where,  elsewhere,  anywhere,  somewhere,  nowhere, 
herein,  whither,  hither,  thither,  upward,  downward,  forward,  backward,  whence, 
hence,  thence,  whithersoever,"  &c. 

4.  Of  time. 

Of  time  present :  as,  "  Now,  to-day,"  &c. 

Of  time  past :  as,  "  Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday,  heretofore,  hitherto,  long 
since,  long  ago,"  &c. 

Of  time  to  come:  as,  "To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter,  henceforth,  henceforward, 
by  and  by,  instantly,  presently,  immediately,  straightways,"  &c. 

Of  time  indefinite:  as,  " Oft,  often,  ofttimes,  oftentimes,  sometimes,  soon,  seldom, 
daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly,  always,  when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,"  &c. 

5.  Of  quantity:  as»  "Much,  little,  sufliciently,  how  much,  how  great,  enough, 
abundantly,"  &c. 

6.  Of  manner  or  quality:  as, "  Wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  unjustly, quickly,  slowly," 
&c.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  the  most  numerous  kind  ;  and  they  are  generally  formed 
by  adding  the  termination  ly  to  an  adjective  or  participle,  or  changing  le  into  ly:  as, 
"Bad,  badly;  cheerful,  cheerfully ;  able,  ably;  admirable,  admirably." 

7.  Of  doubt:  as,  "  Perhaps,  peradventure,  possibly,  perchance." 

a  Of  affirmation:  as,  "Verily,  truly,  undoubtedly,  doubtless,  certainly,  yea,  yes, 
furely,  indeed,  really,"  &c. 

9.  Of  negation:  as,  "  Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not  at  all,  in  no  wise,"  &c. 

10.  Of  interrogation:  as,  "  How,  why,  wherefore,  whether,"  &c. 

11.  Of  comparison:  as,  "  More,  most,  better,  best,  worse,  worst,  less,  least,  very, 
almost,  little,  alike,"  &c. 

When  a  preposition  sufifers  no  change,  but  becomes  an  adverb  merely  by  its  appli* 
cation  ;  as,  when  we  say,  "  He  rides  about ;^^  "He  was  near  falling;"  "  But  do  not 
after  lay  the  blame  on  me." 

There  are  also  some  adverbs,  which  are  composed  of  nouns,  and  the  letter  a  used 
instead  of  at,  on,  &c. :  as,  "  Aside,  athirst,  afoot,  ahead,  asleep,  aboard,  ashore,  abed, 
aground,  afloat." 

Q.  Will  you  name  two  adverbs  of  number  ?  two  cf  order  ?  two  of  place  ? 
two  of  time  present  ?  two  of  time  past  ?  two  of  time  to  come  ?  two  of  time 
indefinite  ?  two  of  quantity  ?  two  of  manner  or  quali*y  ?  two  of  doubt  ?  two 
of  affirmation  ?  two  of  negation  ?  two  of  interrogation  t  two  of  comparison  ? 

Q.  Adjectives  describe  as  well  as  adverbs  :  now,  then,  can  yon  tell  one 
from  the  other  ? 

239.  Adjectives  describe  nouns,  but  adverbs  describe 
or  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Q.  This  fact  should  be  remembered ;  you  shall,  therefore,  have  it  in  the 
form  of  a  rule :  will  you  repeat  it  ? 

HUXiZ!   ZX. 

Adverbs  qualify  verbs^  adjectives^  and  other  adverbs. 

Q.  From  had  we  form  the  adverb  hadly :  how,  then,  may  a  hu-ge  class 
of  adverbs  be  formed  ? 

240.  By  adding  ly  to  adjectives. 

Q.  Will  you  in  this  manner  form  an  adverb  from  wise  ?  frpm  great  ?  from 
aiuful  ? 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

"  The  bird  sings  sweetly .'^ 

241.  Sweetly  is  an  adverb,  a  word  used  to  qualify  a  verb, 
adjective,  or  other  adverb ;  in  this  example  it  qualifies  the  verb 
sings,  agreeably  to 

Rule  IX.   Adverbs   qualify  verbs,   adjectives,   and   other 
adverbs. 
Singit,  bird  and  the  are  parsed  as  before. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


35 


EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED. 
Adverbs  qualifying  verbs, 
'  The  soldiers  marched  slowly."      "  They  will  return  soon." 

*  The  girls  sing  delightfully."         "  The  boys  write  admirably." 

*  Henry  improves  rapidly."  "  Susan  dances  elegantly." 

Adverbs  qualifying  adjectives. 

*  He  was  very  attentive."  **  James  is  more  studious." 

*  John  is  quite  busy."  "  Walter  is  most  studious." 
*•  William  is  really  studious."  "  Ellen  is  less  happy." 

Adverbs  qualifying  verbs  and  other  adverbs. 

*  You  learn  grammar  very  well."     *'  James  writes  most  elegantly." 

*  The  boys  write  too  fast."  "I  will   assist  you  most  cheer- 

*  He  will  come  much  oftener."  fully." 

Adverbs  promiscuously  used. 

*  He  has  read  once."  "  John  is  not  happy." 

*  I  will  first  remind  you."  "  Whither  shall'l  fly  1" 

'•  I  saw  him  yesterday."  "  My  brother  sends  me  the  paper 

*  I  have  eaten  sufficiently."  monthly." 


XVI.    OF  THE  PREPOSITION. 

Q.  To  say,  "The  cider  is  —  cellar,"  would  make  no  sense:  can  you 
inform  me  what  would  make  sense  ? 

242.  "  The  cider  is  in  the  cellar." 

Q.  By  placing  the  little  word  in  after  cider  is,  and  before  cellar,  the  sen- 
tence is  rendered  complete  :  what  office,  then,  does  in  perform  ? 

243.  It  connects  words,  and  thereby  shows  the  relation 
between  thenn. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  preposition  mean  ? 

244.  Placed  before. 

Q.  What,  then,  may  those  words  like  in  be  called,  as  they  are  placed 
bewre  other  words  to  connect  them  with  words  preceding  ? 

245.  Prepositions. 

Q.  What,  then,  are  prepositions? 

246.  Prepositions  are  words  used  to  connect  words,  and 
thereby  show  the  relation  between  them. 

247.  List  of  the  principal  Prepositions. 


Among 
around 

at 

concernmg 

near 

throughout 

by 

down 

of 

touchmg 

amidst 

below 

except 

off 

up 

athwart 

between 

excepting 

on 

upon 

after 

beneath 

for 

over 

under 

about 

behind 

from 

out  of 

underneath 

against 

betwixt 

in 

respecting 

unto 

across 

beside 

into 

to 

with 

above 

beyond 

instead  of 

towards 

within 

according  to 

before 

notwithstanding 

through 

without 

Q.  Will  you 

mention  the 

1  prepositions  beginning  with  a  \ 

?  with  6?  c?  d? 

e?  f?  i?  n?  0 

?  r?  t?  u? 

w? 

36  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

0.  Will  you  now  repeat  all  the  prepositions? 

Q.  Do  we  say,  "He  works  for  I,"  or,  "He  works  for  me"? 

0.  In  what  case  is  wie?  (127.) 

Q.  What  case,  then,  follows  prepositions  ? 

248.  The  objective  case. 

Q.  This  fact  is  of  sufficient  importarfce  to  constitute  a  rule :  will  you, 
therefore,  repeat 

HXTIiIS  Z. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  John  found  his  hat  in  the  road.'^ 

249.  In  is  a  preposition,  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
and  show  the  relation  between  them ;  it  here  shows  the  relation 
between  hat  and  road. 

Road  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name — common  ;  it  is  a  general 
name — neuter  gender  ;  it  is  neither  male  nor  female — third 
PERSON ;  it  is  spoken  of — singular  number  ;  it  means  but  one 
— OBJECTIVE  CASE  J  it  is  the  object  of  the  relation  denoted  by 
the  preposition  in,  and  governed  by  it  according  to 

Rule  X.  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case,"* 

EXERCISES   IN   PARSING    CONTINUED. 

"John  ran  through  the  house  into  "I  will  search  the  house  dili- 

the  garden."  gently  for  him." 

"  We  have  deceived  him  to  our  "  We  might  learn  the  lesson  he- 
sorrow."  fore  them." 

"We  came  in  season."  "According  to  my  impression,  he 

"  You  study  grammar  for  your  is  in  fault." 

improvement  in  language."  "  Notwithstanding  his  poverty,  he 

"  From  virtue  to  vice  the  progress  was  the  delight  of  his  ac- 

is  gradual."  quaintances." 

"  They    travelled    into    France  "  On  all  occasions  she  behaved 

through  Italy."  with  propriety." 

"  He  lives  within  his  income."  "  Of  his  talents  we  might  say 

♦'Without  the  aid  of  charity,  he  much." 

lived  very  comfortably  by  his  "  We  may  expect  a  calm  after  a 

industry."  storm." 


XVII.    OF  THE  CONJUNCTION. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  John ^his  book,"  the  sense,  you  perceive,  is  incom- 
plete.    Can  you  put  a  word  into  the  blank  which  will  complete  the  sense  ? 

250.  "  John  reads  his  book." 

*  The  remaining  words  are  parsed  as  before 


CONJUNCTIONS.  37 

Q.  Can  you  inform  me  what  the  foregoing  expression  is  called? 

251.  A  sentence. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  sentence  ? 

252.  A  collection  of  words,  forming  a  complete  sense. 

Q,  **  Life  is  short."  This  expression  is  called  a  sentence :  can  you  tell 
me  what  kind,  and  why  ? 

253.  It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  makes  sense, 
and  has  but  one  nominative  and  one  verb. 

Q.  What  does  the  term  compound  mean? 

254.  It  means  composed  of  tico  or  more  things, 

Q.  *'  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long."  This  sentence  is  made  up  of  two 
simple  sentences  :  what,  therefore,  may  it  be  called  ? 

255.  A  compound  sentence. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  compound  sentence  ? 

256.  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  sim- 
ple sentences  connected  together. 

Q.  What  does  the  term  conjunction  signify? 

257.  Union,  or  joining  together, 

Q.  In  the  compound  sentence,  "  John  writes,  and  Wilham  learns,"  the 
simple  sentences  are  joined  together  by  the  word  and :  what  word,  then, 
may  and  be  called  ? 

258.  A  Conjunction. 

Q.  **  The  king  and  queen  are  an  amiable  pair."  In  this  sentence,  words 
and  not  sentences  are  connected  by  and :  can  you  point  out  the  words  so 
connected  ? 

259.  King  and  queen, 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  particulars,  what  appears  to  be  the  use  of  the 
conjunction  ?  ^ 

260.  A  conjunction  is  used  to  connect  words  and  sen- 
tences together. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Five  and  four  are  nine,"  what  do  I  mean  ?  * 

261.  Five  added  to  four  make  nine. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  implied  by  and? 

262.  Addition. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  I  will  go,  if  you  will  accompany  me,"  what  does  the 
conjunction  if  imply  ? 

263.  Condition  or  supposition. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  copulative  mean? 

264.  Uniting,  joining,  or  linking  together. 

Q.  And,  if,  &c.  are  called  copulative  conjunctions :  can  you  tell  me  why  ? 

265.  Because  a  copulative  conjunction  connects  or  con- 
tinues a  sentence  by  expressing  an  addition,  a  supposition, 
a  cause,  &c. 

Q.  The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions  of  this  class :  will  you 
repeat  them  ? 

266.  **  And,  both,  because,  besides,  for,  if,  provided, 
since,  then,  that,  therefore,  wherefore." 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  James  and  John  will  come,"  I  mean  both  will  come  ; 
but  when  I  say,  *'  James  or  Johij  will  come,"  what  do  I  mean? 

267.  That  either  James  or  John,  one  of  them,  will 
come. 

4  D 


58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Q.  Are  the  words  in  this  sentence,  then,  joined  or  disjoined  ? 

268.  Disjoined. 

Q.  What  word  is  it  that  expresses  the  disjoining? 

269.  Or. 

Q.  What  part  of  speech  is  or  ? 

270.  Conjunction. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  disjunctive  mean? 

271.  Disjoining  or  separating, 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  conjunction,  then,  shall  we  call  or  ? 

272.  A  disjunctive  conjunction. 

Q.  "James  will  come,  but  Henry  will  not."  Here  the  two  clauses  of 
the  sentence  are  opposed  to  each  other  in  meaning,  and  the  word  but  sepa- 
rates these  two  clauses :  what,  then,  does  this  word  imply  ? 

273.  Opposition  of  nieaning. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing,  what  appears  to  be  the  use  of  the  disjunctive 
conjunction  ? 

274.  The  conjunction  disjunctive  connects  sentences,  by- 
expressing  opposition  of  nfieaning  in  various  degrees. 

Q.  The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions  of  this  class :  will  you 
repeat  them  ? 

275.  **  But,  than,  though,  either,  or,  as,  unless,  neither, 
nor,  less,  yet,  notwithstanding." 

Q.  Prepositions,  you  recollect,  connect  words,  as  well  as  conjunctions ; 
how,  then,  can  you  tell  the  one  from  the  other  ? 

276.  Prepositions  shov^  the  relation  between  words,  but 
conjunctions  express  an  addition,  a  supposition,  a  cause, 
or  an  opposition  of  naeaning. 

Q.  **  He  and  she  write."     In  what  case  is  he  ?  she  ? 

Q.  ThejDronouns  he  and  s^e,  you  perceive,  are  both  in  the  same  case, 
and  connected  by  the  conjunction  and  :  when,  then,  may  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns be  connected  ? 

277.  When  they  are  in  the  same  case. 

Q.  " She  will  sing  and  dances."     How  may  this  sentence  be  corrected? 

278.  "  She  will  sing  and  dance." 

Q.  In  what  mood  and  tense  is,  "She  will  sing?" 

Q.  To  say,  *'  She  dance,"  is  incorrect;  dance,  then,  in  this  example, 
cannot  be  in  the  present  tense  :  will  you,  then,  inform  me  what  "  She  will 
sing  and  dance"  means,  when  fully  expressed  ? 

279.  "  She  will  sing  and  she  w^ill  dance." 

Q.  Here  will  dance  is  in  the  future  tense,  as  well  as  will  sing :  when, 
then,  may  verbs,  in  general,  be  connected  ? 

280.  When  they  are  in  the  same  mood  and  tense. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  particulars,  what  appears  to  be  the  rule  for  tho 
use  of  conjunctions,  m  connecting  words  ? 

AUIiI!   XI. 

Conjunctions  usually  connect  verbs  of  the  same 
mood  and  tense,  and  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the 
same  case. 


INTERJECTIONS.  39 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  John  assists  his  father  and  mother.^* 
281.  And  is  a  conjunction,  a  word  chiefly  used  to  connect 
words  and  sentences  —  copulative  ;  it  connects  father  and 
mother. 

Mother  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name  —  common  ;  it  is  a  general 
name  —  feminine  gender;  it  is  the  name  of  a  female  — 
THIRD  person;  it  is  spoken  of— singular  number;  it  means 
but  one  —  and  it  is  one  of  the  objects  of  assists,  and  is,  there- 
fore, in  the  objective  case,  and  connected  with  father  by  the 
conjunction  and,  according  to 

Rule  XI.  Conjunctions  usually  connect  verbs  of  the  same 
mood  and  tense,  and  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  same  case. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED. 

"  I  will  reward  him  and  them  at  "  She  reads  well,  dances  (3.)  ele- 

some  future  time."  gantly,  and  plays  admirably 

"We  in  vain  (1.)  look  for  a  path  on  the  piano-forte." 

between  virtue  and  vice."  "  Intemperance  destroys  the  mind 

"  Reproof  either  hardens  or  soft-  and  benumbs  the  senses  of 

ens  its  object."  man." 

"  In  the  morning  of  life,  we  ea-  "  You   may  read    this    sentence 

gerly   pursue    pleasure,    but  first,  and  then  parse  it." 

oftentimes  meet  (2.)  with  sad  "  He  has  equal   knowledge,  but 

disappointments."  inferior  judgment." 

"A  good  scholar  never  mutters  "John  rises  early  in  the  morning, 

nor  disobeys  his  instructer."  and  pursues  his  studies." 


XVIII.  OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

Q.  When  I  exclaim,  "  Oh!  I  have  ruined  my  friend,"  "  Alas  !  I  fear 
for  life,"  which  words  here  appear  to  be  thrown  in  between  the  sentences, 
to  express  passion  or  feeling  ? 

282.  Oh!  Alas! 

Q.  What  does  interjection  mean? 

283.  Thrown  between, 

Q.  What  name,  then,  shall  we  give  such  words  as  oh!  alas  !  &c.t 

284.  Interjections. 

Q.  What,  then,  are  interjections? 

285.  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  sentences,  to  express  the  passions  or  sudden 
feelings  of  the  speaker. 

(1.)  In  vain  means  the  same  as  vainly.  It  may,  therefore,  be  called  an 
adverbial  phrase,  qualifying  look,  by  Rule  IX. 

(2.)  Meet  agrees  with  we  understood,  and  is,  therefore,  connected  with 
jpursue  by  the  conjunction  hu,  according  to  Rule  XI. 

(3.)  Dances  and  j>lays  both  agree  with  she,  understood,  and  are,  therefore, 
connected  the  former  with  reads,  and  the  latter  with  dances,  by  Rule  XI. 


40  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

LIST  OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  Of  earnestness  or  grief;  as,  "  O !  oh !  alas !  ah  !** 

2.  Of  wonder;  as,  "Really!  strange!" 

3.  Of  calling;  as,  "Halloo!  ho!  hem!" 

4.  Of  attention ;  as,  "  Behold !  lo !  hark !" 

5.  Of  disgust ;  as,  "  Foh !  fy !  fudge !  away !" 

6.  Of  silence  ;  as,  "  Hush !  hist !"     . 

7.  Of  contempt;  as,  "Pish!  tush!" 

8.  Of  saluting ;  as,  "  Welcome !  hail !" 

Q.  Will  you  examine  the  foregoing  list,  and  then  name  an  interjection  of 
grief?  One  of  wonder  ?  One  of  calling  ?  One  of  attention  ?  One  of  dis- 
gust ?    One  of  silence  ?    One  of  saluting  ? 

Q.  How  may  an  interjection  generally  be  known  ? 

286.  By  its  taking  an  exclannation  point  after  it. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  Ok !  I  have  alienated  my  friendJ* 

287.  Oh  is  an  interjection,  a  word  used  to  express  pas- 
sion  or  feeling. 

35"  The  remaining  words  are  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING    CONTINUED 

"  Oh !  I  must  go  and  see  (1.)  my  "  Strange !      I    did    not    know 
dear  father  before  (2.)  he  dies."  you." 

"  We  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  but,  "Hush!  our  instructer  is  at  the 

alas!  we  often   mistake  the  *     door." 

road  to  its  (3.)  enjoyment."  "  Fy !  how  angry  he  is !" 

(1.)  The  sense  is,  **I  must  go,  and  I  must  see;"  the  verb  see,  then, 
agrees  with  /,  understood,  and  is,  therefore,  connected  with  must  go,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XI. 

(2.)  jBefore,  an  adverb. 

(3.)  Apply,  first,  Rule  V. ;  then,  Rule  I. 


RECAPITULATION. 


CRITICAL    REMARKS. 

COMPOSZTZOXr. 

•XIX.    ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

288.  English  Grammar  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  the 
English  language  correctly. 

289.  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts,  namely, 

290.  1.  Orthography,  3.  Syntax,  ^ 
2.  Etymology,                  4.  Prosody. 


XX.    OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

291.  Orthography  includes  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  and 
power  of  letters,  and  teaches  how  to  spell  words  correctly. 
This  part  of  grammar  is  usually  learned  from  spelling-books 
and  dictionaries. 

292.  Orthography  means  word-making,  or  spelling. 


XXI.    OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

293.  Etymology  teaches  how  to  form,  from  all  the  words 
in  the  English  language,  several  grand  divisions  or  sorts,  com- 
monly called  Parts  of  Speech. 

294.  It  includes  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  and  use  of 
words  —  also  their  different  changes  and  derivations. 

295.  Etymology  signifies  the  origin  or  pedigree  of  words. 

XIX.  What   does  English   grammar         How  is  a  knowledge  of  orthography 
leach?  288.  usually  obtained  ?  291. 

Into  how  many  parts  is  it  divided  ?  289.         What  does  orthography  mean  ?  292. 
What  are  they  ?  290.  XXI.  What  does  etymology  teach  ?  293. 

XX.  What  does  orthography  include         What  does  it  include  ?  294. 

and  teach  ?  291.  What  does  the  word  signify  ?  295. 

4*  (41) 


42 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 
XXII.    OF  SYNTAX. 


296.  Syntax  teaches  how  to  arrange  or  form  words  into 
sentences  correctly. 

297.  It  includes  a  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  composi- 
tion, formed  from  the  practice  of  the  best  writers  and 
speakers. 

298.  Syntax  signifies  arranging  or  placing  together;  or,  as  used  in  gram- 
mar, sentejice-making , 


XXIII.    ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX  COMBINED. 

299.  The  words  of  the  English  language  are  usually- 
divided  into  nine  sorts,  commonly  called  Parts  of  Speech, 
namely, 

Noun,  Pronoun,  Preposition, 

Article,  Verb,  Conjunction, 

Adjective,  Adverb,  Interjection. 


XXIV.     OF  NOUNS. 

300.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place  or  thing ;  as, 
rmn,  London,  knife. 

301.  Nouns  are  of  two  kinds,  proper  and  common. 
Common  nouns  are  general  names ;  that  is,  they  are  names 

common  to  all  individuals  of  the  same  kind  or  sort ;  as,  house^ 
city,  river, 

302.  Proper  nouns  are  particular  names;  that  is,  they 
are  the  names  of  particular  individuals  of  the  same  kind  or  sort ; 
as,  George,  Boston,  3Iississippi. 

303.  When  proper  names  have  an  article  placed  before  them,  thisy  are 
Msed  as  common  names ;  as,  *'  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age." 

304.  When  a  proper  noun  admits  of  a  plural,  it  becomes  a  common  noun ; 


XXII.  What  does  syntax  teach  ?  296. 
What  does  it  include  ?  297. 

What  does  the  word  signify  ?  298. 

XXIII.  How  many  different  sorts  of 
words  are  there  ?  299. 

Wliat  are  they  ?  299. 
What  are  these  sorts  of  words  com- 
monly called?  299. 

XXIV.  What  does  the  word  noun 
mean  ?* 

What  is  a  noun  ?  300.  Give  an  exam- 
ple. 

How  many  different  kinds  of  nouns  are 
there,  and  what  are  they  7  301. 


What  does  the  word  common  mean  7 
31. 

What  is  a  common  noun  ?  301.  Give 
an  example. 

What  does  proper  mean  ?  34. 

What  is  a  proper  noun  ?  302.  Give  an 
example. 

When  proper  nouns  have  an  article 
before  them,  how  are  they  used?  303. 
Give  an  example. 

Are  proper  names  used  as  such  in  the 
plural  ?  304. 

Why  cannot  proper  names  have  a 
plural?  304. 


*  Sm  I.  lit  uwwer. 


NOUNS.  43 

as,  '*  The  twelve  Ccssars,*'  or,  "The  seven  Jameses^  This  is  obvious 
from  the  fact,  that  a  proper  name  is,  in  its  nature,  descriptive  of  one  object 
only,  and,  therefore,  essentially  singular.  Accordingly,  the  nouns  Span- 
iard, European,  American,  &c.  are  common  nouns,  as  well  as  their  plurals, 
Spaniards,  Europeans,  Americans,  &c.* 

305.  Common  nouns  may  also  be  used  to  signify  individuals,  by  the 
addition  of  articles  or  pronouns ;  as,  *'  The  hoy  is  studious ;"  *'  That  girl  is 
discreet." 

306.  When  a  noun  signifies  many,  it  is  called  a  noun  of  multitude,  or  a 
collective  noun  ;  as,  *'  1  he  people,''^  "  The  armyJ*^ 

307.  Abstract  signifies  taken  from:  hence  an  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of 
a  quality  abstracted  from  its  substance ;  as,  knowledge,  goodness,  virtue,  &.c. 

308.  To  nouns  belong  person,  gender,  number  and  case. 


XXV.    PERSON. 

309.  When  any  person,  in  speaking,  introduces  his  own 
name,  it  is  the  first  person ;  as,  "  I,  Jarnes,  of  the  city  of  Bos- 
ton, do  give,"  &c. 

310.  The  name  of  the  person  spoken  to,  is  the  second  person ; 
as,  "  James,  come  to  me." 

311.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  or  about, 
is  the  third  person ;  as,  "  James  has  come." 


XXVI.     GENDER. 

312.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  sex. 

313.  Nouns  have  four  genders — the  masculine,  the  feminine, 
the  common,  and  the  neuter. 

314.  The  masculine  gender  denotes  the  names  of  males ;  as, 
man^  hoy^  &c. 

315.  The  feminine  gender  denotes  the  names  of  females ;  as, 
woman,  girL 

What  do  they  become  when  so  used?         When  is  a  noun  of  the  second  person  ? 

304.    Give  an  example.  310.    Give  an  example. 

What  kind  of  nouns  are   Spaniard,         When  is  a  noun  of  the  third  person? 

Americans,  Spaniards  1  ^QA.  311.    Give  an  example. 

What  effect  does  the  use  of  articles         XXVI.  What  does  the  word  gender 

have  on  common  nouns?  305.  mean  ?  14. 

What  is  a  noun  of  multitude,  or  a  col-         What  is  gender  as  applied  to  nouns? 

lective  noun  ?  306.  Give  an  example.  312. 

What  is  an  abstract  noun  ?  307.  Give  What  does  the  word  masculine  mean?15. 
an  example.  What  does  the  masculine  gender  of 

What  belong  to  nouns?  308.  nouns  denote?  314.    Give  an  example. 

XXV.  When  is  a  noun  of  the  first  per-         What  does  feminine  mean  ?  19. 
BOn  ?  309.    Give  an  example.  What  does  the  fenjinine  gender  denote? 

315.    Give  an  example. 

•  Spain  is  the  proper  name  of  a  country,  and  Spaniard  has,  by  some  grammarians,  been  called  the  proper 
D  ime  of  a  people ;  but  the  lattter  is  a  generic  term,  characterizing  any  one  of  a  great  number  of  p«nooi^  by 
ti.eir  cooaexion  witli  Spain. — EncyclopmcUa, 


44 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


316.  The  common  gender  denotes  the  names  of  such  ani- 
mals as  may  be  either  male  or  female ;  as,  parent,  bird, 

317.  The  neuter  gender  denotes  the  names  of  objects  which 
are  neither  males  nor  females ;  as,  chair,  table. 

318.  Some  nouns,  naturally  neuter,  do,  by  a  figure  of  speech,  as  it  is 
called,  become  masculine  or  feminine ;  as  when  we  say  of  the  sun,  "  jHe  is 
setting,"  and  of  a  ship,  '*  She  sails  well,"  &c.  ^ 

319.  The  English  language  has  three  methods  of  distinguishing  sex,  viz : 
319-1.  By  different  words ;  as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Bachelor, 

Maid. 

Husband, 

Wife. 

Boar, 

Sow. 

King, 

Queen. 

Boy, 

Girl. 

Lad, 

Lass. 

Brother, 

Sister. 

Lord, 

Lady. 

Buck, 

Doe. 

Man, 

Woman. 

Bull, 

Cow. 

Master, 

Mistress.* 

Bullock  or  > 
Steer,         S 

Heifer. 

Milter, 
Nephew, 

Spawner. 
Niece. 

Cock, 

Hen.     ^ 

Ram, 

Ewe. 

Dog, 
Drake, 

Bitch. 
Duck. 

Singer, 

C  Songstress  or 
^Singer. 

Earl, 

Countess. 

Sir, 

Madam. 

Father, 

Mother. 

Sloven, 

Slut. 

Friar, 

Nun. 

Son, 

Daughter. 
Hind. 

Gander, 

Goose. 

Stag, 

Hart, 

Roe. 

Uncle, 

Aunt. 

Horse, 

Mare. 

Wizard, 

Witch. 

319-2.  Byadifferenc 

e  of  termination ; 

as. 

Male, 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Abbot, 

Abbess. 

Enchanter, 

Enchantress. 

Actor, 

Actress. 

Executor, 

Executrix. 

Administrator 

Administratrix. 

God, 

Goddess. 

Adulterer, 

Adulteress. 

Governor, 

Governess. 

Ambassador, 

Ambassadress. 

Heir, 

Heiress. 

Arbiter, 

Arbitress. 

Hero, 

Heroine. 

Baron, 

Baroness. 

Hunter, 

Huntress. 

Bridegroom, 

Bride. 

Host, 

Hostess. 

Benefactor, 

Benefactress. 

Instructer, 

Instructress. 

Caterer, 

Cateress. 

Jew, 

Jewess. 

Chanter, 

Chantress. 

Landgrave, 

Landgravine. 

Conductor, 

Conductress. 

Lion, 

Lioness. 

Count, 

Countess. 

Marquis, 

Marchioness. 

Czar, 

Czarina. 

Mayor, 

Mayoress. 

Deacon, 

Deaconess. 

Patron, 

Patroness. 

Duke, 

Duchess. 

Peer, 

Peeress. 

Elector, 

Electress. 

Poet, 

"  Poetess. 

Emperor, 

Empress. 

Priest, 

Priestess. 

What  does  the  common  gender  denote  ? 

316.  Give  an  example. 
What  does  neuter  mean  ?  23. 

What  does  the  neuter  gender  denote  ? 

317.  Give  an  example. 

What  is  said  of  nouns  naturally  neu- 
ter, in  respect  to  gender?  318.  Give  an 
example. 

How  many  genders  do  nouns  have,  and 
what  are  they?  30. 

How  many  methods  are  there  in  Eng- 
lish of  distinguishing  sex?  319. 

Which  is  the  first ;  as,  hoy  7  girl?  319-1. 

Will  you  spell  the  feminine  correspond- 
ing to  brother?  319-1.  to  hoy?  nephew? 


wizard?  friar  ?  sir  ?  drake  ?  earl  ?  gander  7 
hart  7  king  7  lad  7  man  7  master  7  singer  ? 
sloven  ?  son  7  stag  7  uncle  7 

Will  you  spell  the  masculine  corre- 
sponding to  maid? girl?  madam?  daugh- 
ter ?  niece ? 

What  is  the  second  method  of  distin- 
guishing  sex  ;  as,  abbot  7  abbess  7  319-2. 

Will  you  spell  the  feminine  corre- 
sponding to  abbot  7  actor  7  administrator  7 
baron?  benefactor?  bridegroom?  conduct- 
or  7  czar  7  duke  ?  emperor  7  executor  7 
god?  governor?  heir?  hero?  host?  hunt- 
er ?  instructer  7  Jew  7  lion  7  marquis  7  pa- 
tron 1  peer?  proprietor  1  shepherd?  sor- 


NOUNS. 


ib 


Male.  Female. 

Prince,  Princess. 

Prior,  Prioress. 

Prophet,  Prophetess. 

Protector,  Protectress. 

Proprietor,  Proprietress. 

Shepherd,  Shepherdess. 

Songster,  Songstress. 

Sorcerer,  Sorceress. 

319-3.  By  prefixing  a  noun, 

A  cock- sparrow, 

A  man-servant, 

A  he-goat, 

A  he-bear, 

A  male  child, 

Male  descendants. 


Male. 
Sultan, 


Female. 

Sultaness. 

Sultana. 

Tigress. 

Traitress. 

Tutoress. 

Viscountess. 

Votaress. 

Widow. 


Tiger, 

Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Viscount, 

Votary, 

Widower, 

pronoun,  or  adjective  ;  as, 

A  hen- sparrow. 

A  maid- servant. 

A  she-goat. 

A  she- bear. 

A  female  child. 

Female  descendants. 


XXVII.  NUMBER. 


320.  Number  shows  how  many  are  meant,  whether  one  or 
more. 

321.  Nouns  have  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  the  plural. 

322.  The  singular  number  expresses  but  one ;  as,  boy. 

323.  The  plural  number  implies  more  than  one ;  as,  boys, 

324.  Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  singular  number  only ;  as, 
wheat,  gold,  sloth,  pride,  dutifulness, 

325.  Other  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  number  only ;  as, 
bellows,  scissors,  lungs,  riches,  &c. 

326.  Some  nouns  are  the  same  in  both  numbers  ;  as,  deer, 
sheep,  swine, 

327.  The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  s  to  the  singular ;  as,  sing,  dove,  plur,  doves. 

328.  The  irregular  mode  of  forming  the  plural  is  as  follows :  when  the 
noun  singular  ends  in  x,  ch,  soft,  sh,  or  ss,  we  add  es  to  form  the  plural ;  as, 
box,  boxes  ;  church,  churches  ;  lash,  lashes  ;  kiss,  kisses.  > 

329.  Nouns  ending  in  /  or/e,  change  these  terminations  into  ves  to  form 
the  plural ;  as,  loaf,  loaves  ;  wife,  wives. 


cerer?  sultan?  tiger?  tutor?  viscount 
votary?  widower? 

Will  you  spell  the  masculine  corre- 
sponding to  abbess?  czarina!  duchess^ 
ambassadress?  heroine  1  huntress?  poet- 
ess ?  prophetess  ?  widow  ? 

What  is  the  third  method  of  distin 
guishing  sex ;  as,  a  man-servant  ?  a  maid- 
servant? 319-3. 

Will  you  spell  the  feminine  corre- 
spondinn  to  male  child?  male  descendants  ? 

XXVil.  What  does  the  word  number 
mean?  5. 

What  does  the  number  of  nouns  show  ? 
320. 

What  does  singular  mean  ?  6. 


What  does  the  singular  number  of 
nouns  imply?  322.   Give  an  example. 

What  does  plural  mean  ?  10. 

What  does  the  plural  number  of  nouns 
imply?  323.  Give  an  example- 
How  are  wheat,  gold,  &.c.  used  ?  324. 

How  are  bellows,  lungs,  &c.  used  ?  325. 

What  is  said  of  deer,  sheep,  &c.  ?  326. 

How  many  numbers  do  nouns  have, 
and  what  are  they?  321. 

How  is  the  plural  number  regularly 
formed  ?  327.    Give  an  example. 

When  do  we  add  es  to  form  the  plural  ? 
328.    Give  an  example. 

What  is  the  plural  of  loaf?  329. 

What  is  the  rule  for  it?  329. 


46 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


330.  When  a  noun  singular  ends  in  y,  with  a  vowel  before  it,  the  plural 
is  formed  regularly  ;  as,  Hey,  keys  ;  delay,  delays  ;  valley,  valleys.  But  if 
the  y  does  not  have  a  vowel  before  it,  the  plural  is  formed  by  changing  y 
into  ies  ;  as,  jly,  flies  ;  beauty,  beauties, 

321.  The  follownig  nouns  form  iheir  plurals  not  according  to  any  general 
rules :  — 

Sing.        Plur. 

Mouse',    Mice. 

Louse,     Lice. 

r-^„,      C  Cows  or 

^^^'     iKine. 

Penny,     Pence.  (1.) 

Die,         Dice.  (2.) 

Pea,  Peas.  (3.) 
332.  Mathematics,  metaphysics,  pneumatics,  ethics,  politics,  &c.  are  reck- 
oned either  as  singular  or  plural  nouns.  The  same  is  equally  true  o[  means, 
alms,  amends.  Antipodes,  credenda,  minuticB,  literati,  &c.  are  always  plural. 
Bandit  is  now  considered  the  singular  of  banditti.  The  noun  news  is  always 
singular.  Many  nouns  form  their  plurals  according  to  the  laws  of  the  lan- 
guage from  which  they  are  derived.     The  following  are  of  this  class :  — 


Sing. 
Man, 
Woman 
Child, 
Ox, 
Tooth, 
Foot, 
Goose, 


Plur. 
Men. 
Women. 
Children. 
Oxen.     <v 
Teeth. 
Feet. 
Geese. 


Sing.  Plur. 

Fish,  Fishes.  (3.) 

Cupful,  Cupfuls. 

Spoonful,  Spoonfuls. 

Brother-in-law,  Brothers-in-law. 

Court-martial,    Courts-martial. 
5  Brothers  or 
^Brethren. 


Brother, 


Singular. 
Antithesis, 

Appendix, 

Apex, 

Arcanum, 

Automaton, 

Axis, 

Beau, 

Basis, 

Calx, 

Cherub, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Datum, 

Diaeresis, 

Desideratum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium; 

Erratum, 


Plural. 

Antitheses. 
C  Appendixes  or 
^Appendices. 

Apices. 

Arcana. 

Automata. 

Axes. 

Beaux  or  Beaus. 


Calces. 
5  Cherubim  or 
?.  Cherubs. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Data. 

Diaereses. 

Desiderata. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 
5  Encomia  or 
^  Encomiums. 

Errata. 


Singular. 
Genius, 
Genus, 
Hypothesis, 
Ignis  fatuus, 

Index, 

Lamina, 
Magnus, 

Memorandum, 

Metamorphosis, 

Parenthesis, 

Phenomenon, 

Radius, 

Stamen, 

Seraph, 

Stimulus, 
Stratum, 
Thesis, 
Vertex, 

Vortex, 


Plural. 

Genii.  (4.) 

Genera. 

Hypotheses. 

Ignes  fatui. 
C  Indices  or 
^Indexes.  (5.) 

Laminae. 

Magi. 
S  Memoranda  or 
\  Memorandums. 
,   Metamorphoses. 

Parentheses. 

Phenomena. 

Radii  or  Radiuses. 

Stamina. 
5  Seraphim  or 
\  Seraphs. 

StimuU. 

Strata. 

Theses. 

Vertices. 
C  Vortices  or 
?  Vortexes. 


Will  you  spell  the  plural  oi delay  7  330. 
valley?  What  is  the  rule  for  forming 
these  plurals  ?  22Q. 

Will  you  spell  the  plural  oi  jly  7  330. 
heauty  7  Rule  for  the  plural  ? 

Do  man,  woman,  form  their  plurals  re- 
gularly, or  irregularly  ?  331. 

Will  you  spell  the  plural  of  man?  of 
woman  7  child  7  ot  7  tooth  7  foot  7  goose  7 
mouse  7  louse  7  brother  7  die  7  fish  1  spoon- 
ful? court-martial  7 

Will  you  spell  the  singular  of  live? 
kine  7  cows  7  brethren  7  oxen  7  teeth  7 
pence?  pennies?  peas?  fishes?  cupfuls? 
hrofhers-in  law  7 

What  is  the  plural  of  pea,  when  we  re- 
fer to  quantity  ?  Ot  fish  7 


What  is  the  singular  of  banditti? 
332. 

In  accordance  with  what  laws  does 
antithesis  form  the  plural  ?  332. 

Will  you  spell  the  plural  of  apex?  ap 
pendix?  arcanum?  automaton  7  axis  7  cri- 
sis? basis?  criterion?  datum?  desidera- 
tum 7  effluvium  7  encomium  1  erratum  7 
genius?  index?  memorandum? 

Will  you  spell  the  singular  of  bases? 
beaux?  cherubs?  ellipses?  genii!  theses? 
parentheses  ?  stimuli  7  strata  ? 

How  are  mathematics,  optics,  &c.  con- 
sidered in  regard  to  number?  332. 

Of  what  number  is  means?  'SM.  alms? 
amends?  antipodes?  literati?  news? 


(I.)  Ptnnits,  when  the  coin  is  meant.  (2.)  Dies,  for  coining.  (3.)  Pease,  and  fish,  meaning  quantities;  hut 
pea*  and  fishes,  when  number  is  meant. 

(4.)  Genii,  when  denoting  aerial  or  imaginary  spirits ;  geniutet,  when  denoting  persocs  of  genius.  (5.)  Tn- 
iexta,  when  denoting  pointers  or  table*  of  contents ;  iixdicts,  when  referring  to  algebraic.quantities. 


NOUNS.  47 

XXVIII.     CASE.  ^ 

333.  Case  means  the  different  state,  condition,  or  relation 
which  nouns  have  to  other  words  in  the  same  sentence. 

334.  In  English,  nouns  have  three  cases  —  the  nominative, 
the  possessive,  and  the  objective. 

335.  The  nominative  case  is  usually  the  agent  or  doer,  and 
always  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

336.  The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of;  as,  **  John  assists  Wil- 
liam:" here,  John  is  the  subject  spoken  of,  or  the  nominative  case  to  the 
verb  assists. 

337.  The  possessive  case  denotes  possession,  ownership,  pro- 
perty, &c. ;  as,  "  William's  book."  This  case  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  other  cases  by  the  apostrophe  or  the  letter  s. 

338.  A  noun  in  the  singular  forms  its  possessive  case  by 
taking  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  after  it ;  as, "  John's  hat." 

339.  Plural  nouns  usually  form  their  possessive  case  simply 
by  taking  the  apostrophe ;  as,  "  On  eagles'  wings." 

340.  When  the  plural  of  nouns  does  not  end  in  s,  they  form  their  posses- 
sive case  by  taking  both  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s;  as,  **  Mens 
houses." 

341.  When  the  singular  ends  in  ss,  the  apostrophe  only  is  added ;  as,  "For 
goodness'  sake:"  except  the  noun  witness  ;  as,  *'  The  witness's  deposition." 

342.  Nouns  ending  in  nee  form  the  possessive  by  adding  the  apostrophe 
only  ;  as,  *'  For  conscience^  sake :"  because  an  additional  s  would  occasion  . 
t<jo  much  of  the  hissmg  sound,  or  increase  the  difficulty  of  pronunciation. 

343.  The  objective  case  denotes  the  object  of  an  action  or 
relation. 

344.  In  the  sentence,  |*  John  strikes  him,"  ftmisthe  object  of  the  action 
denoted  by  strikes;  and  in  the  sentence,  **  He  went  from  London  to  York" 
YorJc  is  the  object  of  the  relation  denoted  by  the  preposition  to. 

345.    DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


Singular. 

Flural 

Singular. 

Plural 

Nominative  case, 

Mother, 

Mothers. 

Man, 

Men. 

Possessive  case. 

Mother's, 

Mothers'. 

Man's, 

Men's. 

Objective  case, 

Mother, 

Mothers. 

Man, 

Men. 

XXVIII.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  How  do  nouns  in  the  plural  ?  339. 

word  case?  47.  When  the  plural  noun  does  not  end  in 

What  is  meant  by  the  case  of  nouns  ?  s,  how  is  its  possessive  formed  ?  340.  Give 

333.  an  example. 

How  many  cases  have  nouns,  and  what  When  the  singular  ends  in  ss,  how  is 

are  they  7  334.  the  possessive  case  formed  7   341.    Give 

What  does  nominative  mean  ?  49.  an  example. 

What  is    the  nominative  case  ?  335.  How  is  the  possessive  case  of  nouns 

Give  an  example.  ending  in  nee  formed  ?  342.    Give  an  ex- 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  subject  ample. 

of  a  verb  ?  33G.    Illustrate  it  by  an  exam-  Wiiy  is  not  the  s  added  7  342. 

pie.  What  does  the  word  objective  mean  ? 

What  does  possessive  mean  ?  59.  55. 

What  does  thH  possessive  case  denote  ?  What    does    the    objective    case    of 
337.    Give  an  example.  nouns    denote?    343.    Give   an  exam- 
How  may  this  case  be  distinguished  pie. 
from  the  other  cases  7  3.37.  What  does  the  declension  of  nouns 

How  do   nouns  in  the  singular  form  mean  ?  68. 

their  possessive  case?  338.  Give  an  exam-  Will  you  decline  mother?  345.  man? 

p!e.  brother?  hat? 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

HVIiZS  Z. 

The  p(Msessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following  noun. 
EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  John's  wife  returned. ^^ 
346.  John's  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  masculine  gender, 

the  THIRD    PERSON,  SINGULAR    NUMBER,  POSSESSIVE  CASE,  and 

governed  by  ivife,  by  Rule  I. 

Wife  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  feminine  gender,  the  third 
PERSON,  singular  NUMBER,  and  nominative  CASE  to  retumed, 
by  Rule  VI. 

Returned  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood, 
imperfect  tense  —  "  1.  I  returned;  2.  You  returned;  3.  He 
returned,  or  wife  returned" — made  in  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular, and  agrees  with  wife,  by  Rule  VII. 

MORE   exercises   IN   SYNTAX. 

"  William's  son  has  come."  "  William's  wife's  sister  remained 

"John's  brother  died."  in  town." 

"  John  makes  (1.)  boys'  hats."  "  Rufus  studied  Johnson's  Diction- 

"  John  lost  his  knife."  ary." 

"  The   boys  neglected  their  les-  "  Mary's  bonnet  is  old." 

sons."  "  Virtue's  reward  is  sure."  (2.) 

♦*  Intemperance  ruins  its  votaries."  "  Rufus's  hat  is  new." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  Brothers  estate,'''' 
347.  If  you  examine  the  foregoing  example,  you  will  find  it  difficult  to 
ascertain  whether  the  estate  is  the  property  of  one  brother  or  more  ;  if  of  one 
only,  an  apostrophe  should  precede  the  s,  thus ;  "Brother's  estate  :"  but  if  it 
belongs  to  more  than  one,  an  apostrophe  should  follow  the  s,  thus ;  **  Bro- 
thers' estate."  Mistakes  of  this  sort  often  occur ;  hence  you  perceive  the 
importance  in  writing,  of  attending  to  the  subject  of  grammar- 

"  Hans'  happiness,''^ 
348.  Incorrect,  because  mans^  is  in  the  possessive  case,  sin- 
gular number,  and,  therefore,  the  apostrophe  should  be  placed 
before  the  5,  according  to  the  observations  above,  and  Art.  338. 

Will  you  repeat  the  rule  for  the  posses-  Why  cannot  you  tell  ? 

sive  case  ?  Rule  I.  If  only  one  brother  is  meant,  how 

In  the  sentence,  "John's  wife  return-  should  the  apostrophe  be  placed?    How, 

ed,"  will  you   parse  John's?   wife?  re-  if  more  than  one? 

turned?  346.  In  the  phrase, "  Mans'  happiness,"  why 

Why  is  John's  in  the  possessive  case  ?  is  it  incorrect  for  the  apostrophe  to  follow 

337.  the  5?  348. 

Wliat  kind  of  a  verb  is  returned?  346.  What  is  the  rule  for  forming  the  pos- 

Why  ?  153.  sessive  case  of  nouns  ?  338. 

In  what  case  is  wife  ?  346.  Will  you  now  parse  man's  ? 

Why  ?  335.  We  spell  the  possessive  case  of  man 

id*  The  pupil  may  next  parse  the  addi-  thus,  TO-a-TC-(apostrophe)  s;  will  you  in 

Uonal  exercises  in  syntax.  like  manner  gpell  the  possessive  of  John  ? 

In  the  phrase,  "  Brothers  estate,"  does  William  ?  Rufus  ?  women ?  boys? 

one  brother,  or  more  than  one,  own  the  |I5=*  The  remaining  exercises  are  to  be 

estate  ?  347.  corrected  as  well  as  parsed. 

(I.)  Active-transitive  verb,    (2.)  Adjective,  and  belongs  to  reward^  by  Rule  IV. 


ARTICLES.  49 

SENTENCES   TO    BE   PARSED   AND   CORRECTED,   CONTIjVUED. 
•♦Johns  son  departed."  "  I  discovered  Marias  faults." 

*'  Susans  sister  will  learn."  "  Susan  made  little  Harriets  bon- 

"  Charles  task  is  too  difficult."  net." 

"  I  have  read  Willi's  poem."  "  Johnson  makes  mens  shoes." 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  WRITTEN.* 

349.  Will  you  write  down  two  sentences,  each  containing  a 
proper  noun,  as  for  example, "  William  learns  grammar"  ?  One^ 
containing  a  common  noun  ?  One,  containing  a  noun  of  the  third 
person  singular  ?  One,  of  the  third  person  plural,  and  in  the 
nominative  case  ?  One,  having  a  noun  of  the  second  person 
singular  and  of  the  feminine  gender  1  One,  having  a  noun  the 
name  of  some  article  of  food  ?  One,  having  a  noun  the  name  of 
some  quality  ?  One,  having  a  noun  of  multitude  ?  One,  having 
your  own  name  associated  with  book;  as,  "John  Griscom's 
book"? 


XXIX.    OF  ARTICLES. 

350.  Articles  are  words  put  before  nouns,  to  point  them 

out,  or  to  limit  their  meaning. 

351.  There  are  two  articles,  a  or  an,  and  the, 

352.  A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article. 

353.  The  is  called  the  definite  article. 

354.  The  article  a  is  called  indefinite,  because  it  means  no  particular  per- 
son or  thing ;  as,  **  a  house,"  **  <z  man,"  that  is,  a«y  house,  any  man.  The 
article  the  is  called  definite,  because  it  means  some  particular  person  or  thing ; 
as,  "  the  house,"  *'  the  man,"  meaning  some  particular  house,  some  particu- 
lar man. 

355.  ^becomes  an  before  a  vowel,  and  before  a  silent  A;  as,  "a^t  acorn," 
"awhour."  But  if  the  ^  be  sounded,  the  a  only  is  used;  as,  "a  hand,"  "a 
heart :"  except  when  the  word  before  which  the  article  is  placed,  has  its  ac- 
cent on  the  second  syllable ;  as,  "an  heroic  action,"  '*  a/i  historical  account." 

356.  Before  words  beginning  with  u  long,  a  is  used  instead  of  an ;  as,  **a 
union,"  **  a  university.         a  useful  thing. 

357.  A  is  also  used  for  an  before  the  word  one,  because,  in  pronouncing 
one,  we  sound  it  as  if  written  wun. 

358.  The  article  a  or  an  means  one;  as,  *^  an  ounce,"  "  a  pound,"  that 
is,  one  ounce,  one  pound. 

XXIX.  What  is  an  article  ?  350.  But  if  the  h  is  sounded,  which  is  to  be 

What  does  definite  mean  7  78.  used  ?  355.  Give  an  example. 

What  is  the  called?  353.    Why?.  354.  What  exception  to  this?  355.  Give  an 

Give  an  example.  example. 

What  does  indefinite  mean  ?  81.  Do  we  say,  "  a  union,"  or  ''an  union"  ? 

What  is  a  or  arecalled?  352.    Why?  "a   university,"    or    ''an  university"? 

354.    Give  an  example.  Why?  356. 

How  many  articles  are    there?    351.  Do  we  say,  "a  one,"  or  *'anon«"? 

Name  them.  Why  ?  357. 

When  does  a  become  an  ?  355.  Give  an  What  does  the  article  a  mean  ?    358. 
example.  Give  an  example. 
— — ' ' -t 

•  FJther  on  a  slate  or  in  a  •null  naanuscript  book  kept  for  the  purpose. 


50  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

auziE  zz. 

The  indefinite  article  a  or  an    belongs  to  nouns  of  the 
singular  number, 

RXrZiI!  zzz. 

The  definite  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  of  the  singular 
or  plural  number, 

359.  Exception.  When  the  adjectives/ew,  great  many,  dozen,  hundred, 
thousand,  &c.  come  between  the  noun  and  article,  the  noun  to  which  tho 
indefimte  article  belongs,  is  plural ;  as,  **  a  few  men,"  "  a  great  many  men." 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  The  bird  flies  swiftly:' 

360.  The  is  a  definite  article,  and  belongs  to  bird^  ac- 
cording to  Rule  III. 

Bird  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  common  gender,  the  third 
person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to 
flies,  by  Rule  VI. 

Flies  is  an  active-intransitive  verb,  indicative  mood, 
PRESENT  TENSE  —  "  1.  I  fly  ;  2.  You  fly ;  3.  He  flies,  or  bird 
flies"  —  made  in  the  third  person,  singular,  and  agrees 
with  bird,  by  Rule  VII. 

Swiftly  is  an  adverb,  qualifyingj/Zies,  by  Rule  IX. 

exercises  in  syntax  continued. 

*•  The  boys  have  arrived  season-  "  Children  attend  the  school." 

ably."  "  William  founded  a  university." 

"  Galileo  invented  the  telescope."  "  The  grass  is  green." 

'* The  boy  had  an  ulcer."  "Farmers    carry   hay    into,  the 
♦♦  William  gave  an  historical  ac-  barn." 

count  (1.)  of  the  transaction."  "The  good  scholar  obeys  his  in- 
♦*  Columbus  discovered  the  conti-  structer." 

nent  of  America." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
"  He  had  a  ulcer,'*'* 

361.  Incorrect,  because  we  use  an  before  a  vowel,  except  u 
long:  a  should, therefore  be  an;  thus,  "an  ulcer." 

sentences  to  be  parsed  and  corrected,  continued. 
"  A  enemy  approaches."  *'  Three  barley  corns  make  a  inch." 

"James  procured  a  inkstand."  "Eight  drams  make  a  ounce." 

"  He  conferred  a  honour."  "  They  formed  an  union." 

"An  unit  figure  occupies  the  low-     "  He  quoted  an  hard  saying." 
est  place  in  whole  numbers."     "  Thomas  has  lost  an  horse." 


What  is  the  rule  for  the  indefinite  arti-  \^  The  remaining  exercises  are  next  tn 

cle  ?  Rule  II.                          '  he  parsed  from  the  book. 

What  exception  to  this  rule?  359.  Would  you  say,  "  a  ulcer,"  or  "  an  ul- 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  indefinite  cer"  ?  Wliy  ?  361. 

article  ?  Rule  III.  HJ*  The  pnpil  should  now  take  the  re- 
in the  sentence,  "  the  bird  flies  swift-  mainivg  sentences  to   be   corrected.    lie 

ly,"  how  do  you  parse  the?  bird?  fiies?  should  be  required  to  parse  as  well  as  cor^ 

swiftly?  2?)0.'  rectthem. 

Cl.;  Apply  Rule  Vlll. 


ADJECTIVES.  51 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

363.  Will  you  write  down  two  sentences,  usingf  in  one  the  definite, 
and  in  the  other  the  indefinite  article  ?  One,  containing  a  correctly  used 
before  u  long  ?  One,  having  a  definite  article  correctly  used  before  the 
consonant  h? 

Will  you  write  two  nouns,  the  names  of  different  things  in  the  school- 
room ?  Two,  the  names  of  different  cities  ?  One  sentence,  having  a 
proper  noun  used  as  a  common  noun  ? 


XXX.  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

863.  An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun,  to  describe 
or  define  it ;  as,  "  An  obedient  son." 

364.  In  English,  an  adjective  is  varied  only  to  express  the 
degrees  of  comparison.  There  are  three  degrees  of  compari- 
son— the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

365.  The  positive  degree  simply  describes  an  object;  as, 
"  John  is  good,^^ 

366.  The  comparative  degree  increases  or  lessens  the  posi- 
tive in  meaning ;  as,  "  William  is  better  than  John."  It  im- 
plies a  comparison  between  two. 

367.  The  superlative  degree  increases  or  lessens  the  positive 
to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree ;  as,  "  Thomas  is  the  best ;" 
"  Walter  is  the  worst.^'' 

368.  It  implies  a  comparison  between  three  or  more. 

369.  The  simple  word,  or  positive,  if  a  monosyllable,  (1.)  becomes  the 
comparative  by  adding  r  or  er,  and  the  superlative  by  adding  st  or  csf,  to 
the  end  of  it ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest  ;  ereat,  greater,  greatest. 

370.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  the  comparison  is  usually  made 
by  placing  the  adverbs  more  and  most  before  the  positive ;  as,  henevolenty 
more  be7ievolent,  most  benevolent. 

371.  The  comparison  is  sometimes  formed  by  the  adverbs  less  and  least ; 
as,  wise,  less  wise,  least  wise. 

372.  Dissyllables  (2.)  ending  in  y ;  ajs,  happy,  lovely,  and  in  Ze,  after  a  mute; 
(3.)  as,  able,  ample,  or  accented  on  the  last  syllable  ;  as,  discreet,  polite,  easily 

XXX.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the         What  does  it  imply  ?  368. 
word  adjective?  95.  What  is  a  monosyllable?  369. 

What  is  an  adjective  ?  363.    Give  an         How  are  monosyllables  compared?  369. 

example.  Give  an  example. 

How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are         How  are  dissyllables  compared  ?  372. 
there  ?  364.  What  effect  do  less  and  least  have  on 

Will  you  name  them?  adjectives?  371. 

What  does  the  positive  degree  do  ?  365.         What  is  a  dissyllable  ?  372. 
Give  an  example.  Will  you  spell  the  comparative  and 

What  does  the  comparative  degree  do  ?  superlative  degrees  of  able?  lovely?  aiit- 

366.    Give  an  example.  pie?  discreet?  polite?  372. 

What  does  it  imply  ?  366.  Which  are  the  mutes  ?  372. 

What  does  superlative  mean  ?  103.  How  do  words  of  more  than  two  syl- 

What  does  the  superlative  degree  do?  lables  almost  invariably  form  their  com. 

307.    Give  an  example.  parison?372. 

(I.)  A  word  of  one  syllable.  (2.)  A  word  of  two  syllables 

(3.)  i,  k,  p,  t,  aod  c  and  c  bard,  are  mutes. 


52  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

admit  of  er  and  est ;  as,  happiery  happiest  ;  abler ^  ablest,  &c.     Words  of 
more  than  two  syllables  hardly  ever  admit  of  these  terminations. 

373.  In  some  words,  the  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  the  adverb  most 
to  the  end  of  them ;  as,  nethermost,  uttermost,  uppermost. 

374.  Some  adjectives,  having  in  themselves  a  superlative  signification,  do 
not  admit  of  comparison ;  as,  extreme,  perfect,  right,  wrong,  infinite,  cease- 
less, supreme,  omnipotent,  eternal. 

375.  ^y  adding  ish  to  adjectives,  we  have  a  slight  degree  of  comparison 
below  the  positive ;  as,  black,  blackish  ;  salt,  saltish. 

376.  Very  expresses  a  degree  of  quality,  but  not  the  highest ;  as,  "  good," 
"very  good." 

377.  Words  used  in  counting  and  numbering  are  called  numeral  adjectives ; 
as,  one,  two,  three  ;  first,  second,  third.     These  adjectives  are  not  compared. 

378.  An  adjective  put  without  a  noun,  with  the  definite  article  before  it, 
becomes  a  noun  in  sense  and  meaning,  and  may  be  considered  as  such  in 
parsing ;  as,  "  Providence  rewards  the  good,  and  punishes  the  bad.'^ 

RUIiEl  ZV. 

Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  which  they  describe. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  John  is  sincere.^^ 

379.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar NUMBER,  MASCULINE  GENDER,  and  in  the  NOMINATIVE  CASE 

to  is,  by  Rule  VI. 

Is  is  a.  NEUTER  VERB,  in  the  indicative  mood,  present 
TENSE — "  1.  I  am ;  2.  You  are ;  3.  He  or  John  is," —  made  in 
the  THIRD  PERSON  SINGULAR,  and  agrees  with  John,  according 
to  Rule  VII. 

Sincere  is  an  adjective, — "  sincere,  more  sincere,  most  sin- 
cere,"— made  in  the  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  John,  by 
Rule  IV. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

*  You  are  studious."  *'  One  man  has  come.'* 

'  John  is  more  studious."  **  Two  men  have  departed." 

'  William  is  most  studious."  "  Twenty  men  will  sail."     • 

'  Mary  is  intelligent."  **  James  wrote  his  name  on  the  first 

*  James  is  active."  page." 

*  Thomas  is  less  active."  *'  Here  comes  a  great  man." 

'  Charles  is  happy."  "  Here  comes  a  greater  man." 

'  Mary  is  tall.     Susan  is  taller."  "  Here  comes  the  greatest  man." 

*  No  composition  is  perfect."  **  The  first  fleet  contained  five  hun- 

*  Rehgion  makes  its  votaries  happy."  dred  men. " 

Is  ^er/6c«  compared  ?  Why?  374.  superlative  degrees  of  ^ooi.*  ill!  much? 

Will  you  name  several  others  that  are  little  ? 

not  compared  ?  374.  When  is  an  adjective  to  be  considered 

How  is  the  superlative  formed  in  the  a  noun  '  378. 

^WhKVL'lffectof  i..  added  to  ad.  What  is  the  rule  for  the  adjective  MV. 

jectives  ?  375.    Give  an  example.  In  the  phrase,  "  John  is  sincere,"  how 

What  is  the  force  of  very  in  compari-  <^o  you   parse  John?  ts?  sincere?  3/9. 

BOn'?  376.  Why  is  sincere  in  the  positive  fle;?ree? 

What  are  numeral  adjectives?   377.  365.    Why  do  you  call  is  a  neuter  verb? 

Give  an  example.    Are  they  compared  ?  157. 

377.  UJ"  Let  the  pupil  next  taJce  the  exercises 

Win  you  spell  the  comparative  and  that  follow,  and  parse  as  before. 


PRONOUNS.  53 

XXXI. 

380.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives,  since  they  add  nothing 
to  the  sense,  should  be  avoided ;  as,  worser^  more  wiser ^  &c. ;  also, 
lesser,  supremest,  most  infinite^  &c. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  write  down  two  sentences,  each  containing*  a  different 
adjective  in  the  positive  degree  ?  Two,  with  adjectives  in  the  comparative 
degree?  Two,  with  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree? 

Q.  Will  you  supply  such  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  as  will 

make  sense ?    "A boy  studies  his  lesson."     " A boy  deserves 

punishment."     "  A man   helps   the man."     "  Merchants  own 

ships."     "  The  instructer  loves scholars."     "  William  is  a 

scholar,  Rufus  is  a one,  but  Thomas  is  the  — —  one  that  I  ever  saw." 


XXXII.    OF  PRONOUNS. 

381.  A  PRONOUN  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  to  avoid 
a  disagreeable  repetition  of  the  noun, 

382.  A  PERSONAL  PRONOUN  is  SO  Called,  because  it  invari- 
ably represents  the  same  person.  There  are  five  personal 
pronouns  —  I,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  it.  They  have  person, 
number  and  case,  like  nouns  ,•  and  those  of  the  third  person 
have  gender  also. 

383.  /  is  the  first  person,  thou  the  second,  he,  she,  or  it,  the 
third.     He  is  masculine,  she  is  feminine,  and  it  is  neuter. 

384.  Pronouns,  like  nouns,  have  three  cases  —  the  nomi- 
native, the  possessive,  and  the  objective ;  and  two  numbers  — 
the  singular  and  plural. 

385.  Mine  and  thine,  instead  of  my  and  th/y,  were  formerly  used  in  the 
solemn  style,  before  nouns  and  adjectives  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  silent 
h ;  as,  "Blot  out  all  mine  iniquities." 

XXXI.  Is  it  correct  to  say,  "  A  lesser  XXXII.  What  does  the  word  pronoun 

evil?"    Why  not?  380.  signify?  120. 

Will  you  correct  the  following  inaccu-  What  is  a  pronoun  7  381- 

racies  in  comparison  as  I  read  them  to  Why  is  a  personal  pronoun  so  called  ? 

you  ?  382. 

"  He  is  intelligenter."  How   many    personal   pronouns   are 

"  She  is  the  most  wisest."  there,  and  what  are  they  ?  382. 

"  A  worser  evil."  Why  is  this  number  said  to  include  all 

"William  is  a  bad  boy;  Joseph  is  a  the  pronouns?  134. 

worser  one."  Which  is  the  first  person  ?  the  second  ? 

"  He  gave  a  more  stronger  proof  of  the  the  third  ?  383. 

fact  than  the  other."  To  which  of  the  pronouns  do  we  apply 

"The  pleasures  of  the  mind  are  more  gender?  383. 

(1.)  preferable  than  those  of  the  body."  Why  is  not  gender  applied  to  the  first 

"That  table  is  round,  but  this  is  a  and  second  persons ?  136. 

rounder  one,  and  that  is  the  roundest  of  Which  is  masculine  ?  383.  which  femi- 

the  three."  nine  ?  383.  which  neuter  ?  383. 

"  This  is  more  square."  How  many  cases  have  pronouns,  and 

"  A  more  greater  concern."  what  are  they  ?  384. 

"  The  most  fairest  of  all  the  daughters  How  many  numbers?  384. 

cf  Eve."  Will  you  decline  I?  thou, 7  he  1  she! 

'*  His  mother's  extremest  joy."  it?  127. 

(1.)  For  man  preferable  than,  read  preferable  to. 


94 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


XXXIII.    COMPOUND  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

386.  Compound  personal  pronouns  are  formed  by  adding 
the  word  self^  in  the  plural  selves^  to  the  simple  pronouns ;  as, 
himself^  themselves^  &c. 


PERSON. 

First. 
Second. 


Third. 


CASE. 

Nom. 
JPoss. 
Obj. 
Nom. 

Fobs. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Foss. 
Obj. 
Nom. 


Obj. 
Nom. 
Foss. 
Obj. 


8INGULAE. 

Myself, 
Wanting. 
Myself, 
Thyself,  or') 
Yourself,    5 

Thyself,  orl 
Yourself,  5 
Himself, 


Himself, 
Herself, 

Herself, 
Itself, 

Itself, 


PLURAL. 

Ourselves. 

Ourselves. 
Yourselves. 

Yourselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 


Pronouns  must  agree  with  the  nouns  for  ivhich  they 
stand,  in  gender,  number  and  person. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  John  found  his  knife,^^ 

387.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  masculine  gender,  the  third 

PERSON,    SINGULAR    NUMBER,    and     NOMINATIVE    CASE     tO    fouud^    by 

Rule  VI. 

Found  is  an  active-transitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood, 
imperfect  tense  —  "1.  I  found;  2.  You  found;  3.  He  or  John 
found" — made  in  the  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  JoA?i, 
by  Rule  VII. 

His  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person  singular, 
masculine  gender,  and  agrees  with  John^  according  to  Rule  V. ;  in 
the  possessive  case,  and  governed  by  knife,  by  Rule  I. 

Knife  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person  singular,  neuter 
gender,  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  founds  according  to 
Rule  VIII. 


Of  what  number  and  person  is  minet 
ours  ?  me?  toe!  they  1  thine ?  you ? 
yours?  127. 

Of  what  gender,  number  and  person  is 
he  ?  she  ?  it  ? 

Of  what  number,  person  and  case  is 
they  ?  ours  ?  his  ?  hers  ?  mine  ? 

In  what  style  were  mine  and  thine  for- 
merly used  ?  385. 

XXXIII.  How  are  the  compound  per- 
sonal pronouns  formed  ?  386. 


What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of 
personal  pronouns  in  the  phrase,  "  John 
found  his  knife  ?"  V. 

How  do  you  parse  John?  387. 

Will  you  parse  John  in  the  phrase, 
"  John  found  his  knife  ?"  .387. 

Will  you  parse  found?  his?  knife? 
387. 

\[^  Theleamer shouldnextparsc  the  re- 
maining exercises  in  Syntax  from  the  book, 
and  then  take  the  exercises  t4)  be  written. 


PRONOUNS.  &S 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

1. 

"  James  obtained  his  request."  "  Ye  despise  reproof." 

**  I  will  assist  you."  *'  They  mend  their  pens." 

"  He  will  receive  his  reward."  "  Mary  tore  her  handkerchieC" 

"  She  misused  him."  "  Virtue  has  its  reward." 

**  Sin  ruins  its  votaries."  **  She  deceived  them." 

2. 
"An  indulgent  father  will  reprove     "John  is   in   distress,   and  I   will 

his  son  when  (1.)  he  deserves  assist  him." 

it."  "  I  found  Mary  and  her  mother  in 

*  A  dutiful  son  gladdens  the  hearts  trouble,  and  (2.)  comforted  (3.) 

of  his  parents."  them." 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  compose  two  sentences,  each  having  a  different  personal 
pronoun  of  the  first  person  ?  One,  having  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person 
plural  ? 

Q.  Will  you  fill  up  the  following  sentences  with  suitable  pronouns, 
BO  as  to  make  sense  ?  "  —  lost  my  hat,  but  found  —  again."  "  Let 
Harriet  have  —  book,  for  —  will  need  —  to  get  her  lesson."  "  The 
travellers  lost  —  way,  and  the  boys  conducted  —  to  —  homes." 

Q.  Will  you  fill   up  the   following    broken   sentences   with   suitable 

words   to   make   sense  ?     "  Intemperance r—  evil."      "  Washington 

father  of   his ."     "Columbus America."     "Boston 

inhabitants."      "  The ocean  is miles   wide."      " first 


XXXIV.    OF  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

388.  In  the  sentence,  **  ^l^oth  wealth  and  poverty  are  temptations;  that 
tends  to  excite  pride,  this  discontent;"  you  perceive  that  the  word  that 
represents  wealth,  and  thq^^word  this  poverty.  This  and  that  do,  therefore, 
resemble  pronouns,  and  may,  for  this  reason,  be  called  pronouns. 

389.  When  I  say,  **  THis  house  is  mine,  that  barn  is  yours,"  the  words 
this  and  that  are  joined  to  nouns  like  adjectives,  to  define  or  specify  them : 
they  may,  on  this  account,  be  called  adjectives. 

390.  Adjective  pronouns,  then,  are  words  that  resemble  both 
pronouns  and  adjectives.  These  pronouns  are  sometimes  calN 
ed  pronominal  adjectives,  or  specifying  adjectives.  ■'    , 

391.  The  ADJECTIVE  pronouns  may  be  divided  into  three 
sorts — the  distributive,  the  demonstrative,  and  the  indefinite. 

392.  The  distributive  are  those  that  relate  to  persons  oi 
things,  taken  separately  and  singly. 

XXXIV.     What    are   adjective   pro-  One  in  which  they  resemble  adjective?  1 

nouns?  390.  389. 

Why  are  they  so  called?  388,  389.  Into  how  many  sorts  may  these  pro- 

By  what  other  name  have  these  pro-  nouns  be  divided,  and  what  are  they  J 

nouns  been  called?  390.  391. 

Will  you  give  an  example  in  which  What    is    a    distributive    pronoun? 

these  words   resemble  pronouns?   3^  392. 

<l.)  Adverb.  (9.)  Conjunction.  («.)  Apply  Rule  XI. 


56  '  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

393.  DISTRIBUTIVE  (1.)  PRONOUNS. 
Each,  every,  either,  and  sometimes  neither. 

394.  Each  relates  to  two  or  more  persons  or  things,  taken  separately ; 
as,  "  Each  of  his  brothers  is  doing  well." 

395.  Every  relates  to  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies  each  one 
of  them,  taken  separately ;  as,  **  Every  man  must  account  for  himself." 

396.  Either  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  only,  taken  separately,  and 
signifies  the  one  or  the  other;  as,  "I  have  not  seen  cifAer."  Hence,  to 
say,  "  Either  of  the  three,"  is  incorrect. 

397.  Neither  means  not  either ;  that  is,  not  one  nor  the  other ;  as, 
**  Neither  of  my  friends  was  there." 

398.  The  demonstrative  (2.)  pronouns  are  those  which 
precisely  point  out  the  things  to  which  they  relate. 

399.    DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 
Sing,  Plu, 

This,  These. 

That,  Those. 

Former,  Former. 

Latter,  Latter. 

400.  Thi$  and  these  refer  to  the  nearest  persons  or  things, — that  and  tho$e 
to  the  most  distant ;  as,  *'  These  gloves  are  superior  to  those.''^  **  Both  wealth 
and  poverty  are  temptations ;  that  tends  to  excite  pride,  this  discontent." 

401.  The  INDEFINITE  are  those  that  refer  to  things  in  an 
indefinite  or  general  manner. 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

402.  Some,  other,  any,  one,  all,  such,  none.  Of  these 
pronouns,  one  and  other  are  declined  like  nouns.  Another  is 
declined  in  the  singular,  but  it  wants  the  plural. 

Sing.  Plu. 

403.  Nom.  Other,  Others. 
Foss,  Other's,  Others'. 
Ohj.                    Other,  .    Others. 

Sing.  Plu. 

404,  Nom.  One,  Ones. 
Poss.  One's,  Ones'. 
Ohj,                   One,  Ones. 

We  say,  "This  book,"  but,  "These  books;"  also,  "One  man," 
"  Twenty  men:"  hence, 

405.  Note  L  Adjective  pronouns  and  numerals  must  agree 

in  number  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong. 

Why  is  it  so  called  ?  393.  Which  are  singular  ?  399.    Which  plu- 

Which  are  they  ?  393.  ral  ?  399. 

What  does  each  refer  to  ?  394.    Give         what  do  this  and  these  refer  to  ?  400. 

*"whoI"Jf«oa  s^c^.  »oio*-  ♦«  1  oQc    r-;™         What  do  that  and  those  refer  to  ?   Give 

What  does  every  relate  to  ?  395.   Give  pvamni*.   4on 

an  example.  an  example.  40U. 

What  does  either  relate  to  ?  396.   Give        What  does  indefinite  mean  ?  81.    ^ 
an  example.  What  is  an  indefinite  pronoun  ?  401. 

What  does  neither  mean  ?  397.  W^'^^  ^''^  ^^^^  ^  ^^^-  .  .«« 

What  does  demonstrative  mean  ?  398.  Will  you  decline  other  ?  403. 

What   are  demonstrative  pronouns?        Will  you  decline  one?  404. 
398.  What  note  do  you  apply  in  parsing  ad- 

Which  are  they  ?  399.  jective  pronouns  ?  Note  I. 

(1.)  So  called  from  distribttte,  to  divide  among  several, 
(2.)  So  called  from  demonstrate,  to  prove  or  show  jpreciselt/. 


PRONOUNS. 


57 


EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  These  two  hooks  belong  to  meJ^ 
406.  These  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind, 
in  the  plural  number,  and  belongs  to  books^  according  to  Note  I. 
Two  is  a  NUMERAL  adjective,  and  belongs  to  booksy  by  Note  I. 
Books  J  belong,  &c.,are  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED. 


"Every  man  performs  his  part  in 

creation." 
'  Each  man  arrived  at  his  station." 

*  Either   party  can  repair  the   in- 

jury." 
'Some     persons    cannot    acquire 

wealth." 
*Many  people   obtain  riches  with 

apparently  little  exertion." 

*  One  boy   labors  for  his  improve- 

ment." 

*  This  man  neglects  his  affairs." 


"These   men  might  remain  with 

us." 
"  Those  men  make  many  pretences 

to  religion." 
"All  rational  beings  desire  happi- 
ness." 
"By  application    almost   any   boy 

may     acquire      an     honorablo 

rank  in  his  class." 
"Good     and    virtuous     men    will 

sooner  (1.)  or  later  (1.),  attain 

to  happiness." 


"  The  old  bird  feeds  her  young  onesJ^ 
407.  Ones  is  an  indefinite  pronoun,  representing  birds ;  in  the 

COMMON  GENDER,  THIRD   PERSON   PLURAL,  in  the  OBJECTIVE  CASE,  and 

governed  by  feeds,  agreeably  to  Rule  VIII. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

**  One  boy  influences  many  others."     others  spend  their  time  in  idleness ; 

"  None  act  their  part  too  well."  the  former  will  receive  praise,  the 

**  Some  scholars    study   diligently ;     latter  censure." 
"We  cannot  say,  *'  Them  run,"  but,  "  They  run :"  hence, 
Note  II.  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  the 

verb,  it  should  be  in  tTie  nominative  case. 
It  is  very  common  for  persons  in  conversation  to  say,  "  Them  books," 

**  Them  knives,"  &c.  instead  of  *'  Those  books,"  "  Those  knives,"  &c. 

The  incorrectness  here  alluded  to  consists  in  substituting  a  personal  in  the 

place  of  an  adjective  pronoun :  hence, 

Note  III.  The  pronoun  them  should  not  be  used  in  the  place 
of  these  or  those. 


In  the  plirase,  "  These  two  books,"  &c. 
will  you  parse  these  ?  two  7  406. 

W^ill  you  now  take  the  book,  and  parse 
the  remaining  exercises  under  Note  I.  ? 

In  ihe  phrase,  "  The  old  bird  feeds  her 
young  ones,"  will  you  parse  ones  7  407. 

Will  you  correct  by  Note  I.  the  follow- 
ing examples,  as  I  read  them  to  you  ? 

"  He  will  not  come  this  two  hours." 

"  I  dislike  those  sort  of  books." 

"  I  have  two  canes ;  you  may  have  any 
of  them." 

Do  we  say,  "  They  run,"  or,  "  Them 
run?"  Why?  Note  II. 

Will  you  now  correct,  by  Note  II.  the 
followingexamples  as  I  read  them  to  you? 


"  Them  will  go." 

"  Him  and  me  went  to  church." 

"  Art  thee  well  ?" 

"  Him  who  is  diligent  will  improve." 

Would  you  say,  "  Them  knives,"  or, 
"  These  knives"?  Why?  III. 

In  what  does  the  incorrectness  con- 
sist? III. 

Will  you  correct  the  following  expres- 
sions  ? 

"  Them  boys  are  very  idle." 

"  Bring  me  them  pens." 

"  Which  of  them  three  things  do  you 
prefer?" 

UJ"  The  pupil  may  next  take  th*  exer- 
cises to  he  written. 


SB  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  compose  two  sentences,  each  having  a  different  adjective 
pronoun  ?  One,  having  a  demonstrative  pronoun  ?  One,  having  an  in- 
definite  pronoun  used  as  a  noun  ? 

Q.  Will  you  fill  up  with  pronouns  suitable  to  make  sense  the  follow- 
ing phrases  ?  "  When  Harriet  found  —  book,  —  tore^ — ,  and  then  flung 
—  away."     "  —  man  likes  —  farm,  —  merchandise." 

Q.  Will  you  compose  a  proper  example  under  Rule  I.  ?  One  under 
Rule  II.  ?  Rule  III.  ?  Rule  IV.  ?  Rule  V.  ?  Rule  VI.  ? 


XXXV.    OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

408.  In  the  sentence,  "  That  man  is  happy,  who  Uvea  virtuously,"  the 
word  who  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  stands  for  a  noun  (the  noun  man),  and  it  is 
a  relative,  because  it  relates  or  refers  to  this  noun  in  the  same  sentence :  hence, 

409.  A  relative  pronoun  is  a  word  that  usually  stands  for 
some  noun  before  it  in  the  same  sentence. 

410.  There  are  three  relative  pronouns,  viz. 

411.  Who,  which,  and  that. 

412.  Who  is  used  in  speaking  of  persons ;  as,  "  The  man 
who  came." 

413.  Which  is  used  in  speaking  of  animals  or  things ;  as, 
"  The  bird  which  sings,"  "  The  tree  which  I  planted." 

414.  Which,  however,  is  used  in  speaking  of  persons,  when  we  wish  to 
distinguish  one  of  two  individuals,  or  a  particular  person  among  many 
others  ;  as,  *'  Which  of  the  two  is  he  ?"  "  Which  of  them  has  gone  ?" 

415.  That,  as  a  relative,  is  often  used,  in  speaking  either  of 
persons  or  things,  in  the  place  of  who  or  which  ;  as, 

"The  boy  that  reads,"  or,  "The  boy  who  reads;"  "The  bird  that 
flew,"  or,  "The  bird  which  flew;"  "The  bench  that  was  made,"  or, 
"  The  bench  which  was  made." 

That  is  used  in  preference  to  who  or  which,  in  ihe  following  cases:  — 

1.  In  speaking  both  of  persons  and  things ;  as,  "  The  man  and  the  beast 
that  I  saw,  perished." 

2.  In  speaking  of  children ;  as,  "  The  child  that  I  met." 

3.  After  the  adjective  same;  as,  "He  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw 
yesterday." 

4.  After  the  superlative  degree;  as,  "He  is  the  wisest  man  that  the 
world  ever  produced." 

5.  After  the  relative  who;  as,  "Who  that  reflects." 

415 — 1.  Exception.  That,  as  a  relative,  cannot  take  the  preposition  im 
mediately  before  it ;  as,  "  He  is  the  same  man  with  that  you  were  acquaint- 
ed." For  with  that,  read  with  whom.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that, 
when  the  arrangement  is  a  Httle  varied,  the  word  that  admits  the  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  He  is  the  same  man  that  you  were  acquainted  whh." 

XXXV.  In  the  sentence,  "  That  man     speaking  of  persons?   Give  an  example. 
IS  happy,  who  lives  virtuously,"  what      414. 
part  of  speech  is  who  ?  Why  ?  408.  What         When  may  that  be  used  ?  415. 

^''Hiu  Y^-^^  •  f^:-                    o  .na  Is  it  correct  to  say,  "  The  child  who  ?'• 

What  IS  a  relative  pronoun  ?  409.  ^^    „^^  ,  .  .j,^^  J^^  ^^„  ^ho  ?"  Why 

Will  you  name  them?  411.  „^^  V    -The  wisest  man  which?"  Why 

When  do  we  use  who  7  Give  an  exam-  ^^^ ,  .  ^j,     ^^^  ^^^^^^^  ,„  y^^    ^ot  ? 

pie.   412.  4,tr  .     -l      n     'i     A      K 

When  do  we  use  which?    Give  an  ex-      *^^ '  ^' '''  "*'  *'  '*' 
ample.  413.  What  exception  is  mentioned  ?  415—1. 

In  what  cases  do  we  use  which,  in      Give  an  exampl  .  415 — I. 


PRONOUNS.  59 

416 — 1.  We  can  say,  **  The  man  who,"  or  "  The  men  who,"  using  tbo 
relative  who  in  speaking  either  of  one  man  or  more  than  one  :  xeho^  then,  is 
of  both  numbers,  and  is  thus  declined : 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  Who,  Who. 

Poss.  Whose,  Whose» 

Obj.  Whom,  Whom. 

417.  Which  and  thai  are  of  both  numbers,  but  they  are  not  declined,  ex- 
cept that  whose  is  sometimes  used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which ;  as,  "  Is 
there  any  other  doctrine  wAose  followers  are  punished  ?" 

418.  Whose,  used  in  the  manner  last  described,  is  made  to  represent  three 
words ;  as,  "  Philosophy  whose  end,"  for  '*  the  end  of  which." 

419.  Antecedent  signifies  going  before. 

420.  The  noun  or  pronoun  which  goes  before  the  relative,  and  to  which 
the  relative  refers,  is  therefore  called  the  antecedent  of  the  relative ;  as, 
'*  John,  who  has  gone."     Here,  John  is  the  antecedent  of  who. 

421.  When  you  are  told  that  who,  which,  and  that  are  relatives,  you  should 
not  get  the  impression  that  the  last  two  are  always  relatives ;  for  that  is  a 
relative  only  when  it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  who  or  which  i  that  is,  when  wfio 
or  which  may  be  used  in  its  place,  without  destroying  the  sense  ;  as,  *'  Here 

'  is  the  knife  that  I  found,"  which  can  be  altered  to  ''  Here  is  the  knife  which 
I  found,"  without  injury  to  the  sense. 

422.  That,  when  it  points  out  or  specifies  some  particular  person  or  thing, 
is  reckoned  an  adjective  pronoun.  When  not  used  as  a  relative,  nor  as  an 
adjective  pronoun,  it  is  reckoned  a  conjunction;  as,  "  He  studies  that  he 
may  learn." 

423.  Hence  it  appears  that  the  word  that  may  be  used  sometimes  as  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  sometimes  as  an  adjective  pronoun,  and  sometimes  as  a  con- 
junction. 

424.  Since  relative  pronouns  stand  for  nouns,  as  well  as  personal  pro- 
nouns, they  should  therefore  agree  with  nouns  in  the  same  particulars  and 
by  the  same  rule.    Rule  V.  will  therefore  apply  to  both. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  That  man  is  happy  who  lives  virtuously,^* 
425.  That  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  of  the  singular 
NUMBER,  and  belongs  to  man,  by  Note  I. 

Who  is    a  RELATIVE  PRONOUN,  of  the   MASCULINE    GENDER, 

THIRD  PERSON  SINGULAR,  and  agrees  with  man,  by  Rule  V.    It 
is  in  the  nominative  case  to  lives,  according  to  Rule  VI. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

"That  man   is   fortunate   who  es-     "I  met  the  same  man  in  the  market 
capes  censure.  to-day  (1.),  that  I  met  yesterday 

"The  girl  whom  I  saw,  perished."  in  the  street. 

IIow  many  numbers  has  wAo?  416.  When  is  tkat  an  adjective  pronoun? 

Will  you  decline  it  ?  416—1.  Give  an  example.  422. 

How  many  numbers  have  which  and  When  a  conjunction?   Give  an  exara- 

that?  Are  they  declined?  417.  pie.  422. 

What  exception  to  this?  417.  How  many  different  parts  of  speech 

When  whose  is  used  as  the  possessive  may  that  rnpresent  ?  423. 

case  of  which,  how  many  words  does  it  What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of 

represent?  Give  an  example.  418.  relative  pronouns?  424. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  antecedent?  Will  you   parse  that,  in  the  phrase, 

419.  ♦'  That  man"  ?  425, 

What  is  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  ?  In  the  sentence,  "  That  man  is  happy 

Give  an  example.  420.  who    lives   virtuously,"  will  you  parse 

Is  that  always  a  relative  ?  421,  who?  425. 

When  is  it  a  relative  ?  Give  an  exam-  Will  you  now  take  the  book,  and  parse 

pie.  421.  the  remaining  exercises? 


60  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

"  You,  who  came  first,  should  retire  "  That  house,  which  stands  on  the 
first."  hill,  once  (1.)  belonged  to  me." 

"  You  taug-ht  the  boy  whose  hat  I  "  The  boy  whom  I  instruct  learns 
found."  well." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED.  ' 
"  The  man  which  I  saw  J' 
426.  Incorrect ;  because,  in  speaking  of  persons,  who,  whose, 
or  whom  is  generally  to  be  used.     It  should  therefore  read, 
"  The  man  whom  I  saw." 

SENTENCES    TO    BE    PARSED   AND    CORRECTED,    CONTINUED. 

"  The  bird  whom  I  killed  had  made  "  Thou  who  are  in  prosperity  must 

her  nest."  assist  me  in  adversity." 

"The  man  which  visited  me  has  "He  which  shuns  vice  does  gene- 

lefl  town."  rally  practise  virtue." 

"  That  man  is  happy  whom  is  vir-  "  I,  who  lives  by  your  charity,  should 

tuous."  be  grateful." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  construct  a  sentence  containing  the  relative  who  ?  One, 
containing  icAicA  ?     One,  containing  <Aaf? 

Q.  Will  you  fill  up  the  following  sentences  with   relatives  correctly 

used  ?      "  The   man sins   shall   die."     "  The  boy studies  will 

learn."     "  The  bird sung  so  sweetly  has  flown."     Will  you  fill  up 

the  following  with  one  or  more  words  that  will  make  sense  ?  "  Intempe- 
rance   evils."     "  If truth sorry." 

Q.  Will  you  embrace  in  different  sentences,  each  of  the  following  words  ? 
Washingtoriy*  Columbus,  Captain  Cook,  Indians,  Wisdom,  Riches,  James 
Monroe. 


XXXVI.    OF  COMPOUND  AND  INTERROGATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

427.  *'  I  took  what  you  gave  me." 

"  I  took  that  which  you  gave  me.'* 

**  I  took  the  thing  which  you  gave  me." 

"  I  took  those  things  which  you  gave  me." 

428.  By  examining  the  foregoing  sentences,  you  will  see  that  the  word 
,  what,  in  the  first  example,  means  the  same  as  the  words  in  italics  in  the  suc- 
cessive ones :  the  word  what,  then,  is  clearly  a  pronoun ;  and  because  it 
stands  for  more  than  one  word,  it  is  called  a  compound  pronoun.  The  word 
before  the  relative  which,  in  the  phrase  "  that  which,"  or  **  the  thing  which," 
is  the  antecedent  of  which.    Hence, 

429.  What  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  including 
both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is  generally  equiva- 
lent to  THAT  WHICH. 

Instead  of  saying,  "  The  man  which  I  tences  which  mean  the  same  as  "  I  took 

saw,"  what  should  I  say?  Why?  426.  what  you  gave  me"  ?  427. 

Will  you  correct  and  parse  the  remain-  What  words,  then,  does  what  stand  for  ? 

ing  exercises,  and  then  take  the  exercises  428. 

to  be  written  ?  Why  is  what  a  pronoun  ?  428. 

XXXVI.  Will  you  repeat  those  sen-  Why  a  compound  pronoun  ?  428. 

(1.)  Adverb. 

*  Thus,  "  Wuhin^n  was  a  true  patriot,"  &c.    2%e  pupil  may  writt  several  sentences  on,  each  toord. 


PRONOUNS.  61 

430.  Who,  which,  and  what  have  sometimes  the  words  ever  or  goever  an- 
nexed (1.)  to  them :  and  each  combination  of  this  sort  is  called  a  compound 
relative;  as,  whoever,  whosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever,  &,c.  They  are  not 
often  used. 

431.  Who,  which,  and  what  are  called  interrogatives,  or  relatives  of  the 
interrogative  kind,  when  they  are  used  in  asking  questions;  as,  **  Who  is 
he  ?"  **  Which  is  the  book  ?"  "  What  are  you  doing  ?"  These  relatives, 
you  perceive,  have  no  antecedents,  but  relate  to  some  word  or  phrase  con- 
tained in  the  answer,  which  is  called  a  subsequent,  because  it  follows  after 
the  relative;  as,  "Whom  did  you  see?"  Ans.  "John."  Here  John  is 
the  subsequent  to  which  whom  refers. 

432.  Hence  it  follows,  that  antecedent  and  subsequent  are  opposed  to  each 
other  in  meaning ;  the  former  signifying  ^oiwg  before,  the  Iditter  following  after, 

433.  Wliether  was  formerly  made  use  of  to  express  interrogation;  as, 
*  Whether  of  these  shall  I  choose  ?"  but  it  is  now  seldom  used,  the  inter- 
rogative which  supplying  its  place. 

434.  Which,  what,  and,  as  we  have  already  seen,  that,  when  joined  to 
nouns,  are  adjective  pronouns ;  as,  "  unto  which  promise  our  twelve  tribes." 

435.  When  what  and  which  are  joined  to  nouns  in  asking  questions,  they 
are  called  interrogative  adjective  pronouns ;  as,  **  Which  horse  did  he  take  ?" 

436.  In  some  instances,  we  find  what  used  in  the  sense  of  an  interjection ; 
as,  "  What  I  take  my  money,  and  then  my  life  ?" 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  /  will  leave  what  is  useless,** 

437.  What,  in  the  example  above,  means  the  same  as,  "that  which,"  or, 
"  the  thing  which ;"  we  will,  therefore,  in  parsing  it,  bear  in  mind  that  it 
has  the  government  and  agreement  of  two  separate  words.  We  will  first 
parse  it  as  standing  for  thing,  and  secondly  for  which. 

What  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  and  is  equivalent  to 
"  that  which,"  or,  "  the  thing  which."  In  representing  thing,  it 
may  be  considered  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person  singular,  neu- 
ter GENDER,  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  leave,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  VIII. 

What,  in  representing  which,  may  be  considered  a  relative  pro- 
noun of  the  third  person  singular,  neuter  gender,  and  relates 
to  thing  for  its  antecedent,  according  to  Rule  V.  and  in  the  nomi 
native  case  to  is,  by  Rule  VI. 

Is  is  a  neuter  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense — ' 
"1.  I  am ;  2.  You  are;  3.  He  or  which  is" — made  in  the  third  per- 
son singular,  and  agrees  with  which,  the  relative  part  of  the  pro- 
noun what,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

Useless  is  an  adjective,  in  the  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to 
what,  by  Rule  IV. 

How  may  what  be  described  ?  429.  When  are  what,  which,  and  that  a^jec- 

Will  you  give  three  examples  of  com-  tive  pronouns?  Give  an  example.  434. 
pound  pronouns  formed  by  annexing  ever       Which  of  the  relatives  are  sometimes  in- 

or  soever?  430.  terrogative  adjective  pronouns  ?  When? 

What   is   the   meaning  of  annexed?  435. 
430.  When  I  say,  "  What !  rob  me  of  my 

When  are  who,  which,  and  what  called  money,  and  then  take  my  life  ?"  in  what 

interrogatives  ?  431.  sense  is  what  used  ?  436. 

What  are  the  nouns  called,  to  which         In  the  sentence,  "1  will  leave  what  is 

interrogatives  refer  ?  431.  useless,"  how  do  you  parse  what?  is? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  subsequent?  useless?  437. 
432.  What  does  7cAa«  stand  for?  437. 

Why  so  called?  431.  Do  you  parse  it  as  one  word  or  two? 

In  the  phrase,  "  Whom  did  you  see  ?'»  What  two  ?  437. 
Ans.  "  John  ;"  which  word  is  the  subse-         23"  The  pupil  may  now  parse  the  re- 

quent  7  431.  maining  exercises  on  the  pronoun  what. 

(1*)  Raced  afUr. 
6  F 


03  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
** James  will  do  what  is  proper."  "William  demands  what  I  cannot 

**  You  heard  what  I  said."  give." 

"  Whatever  improves  delights  him."     "  They  advocate  what  is  excellent.* 


XXXVII.    OF  THE  VERB. 

438.  A  VERB  is  a  word  that  expresses  action  or  being. 
Verbs  are  of  three  kinds — active,  passive,  and  neuter. 

439.  An  active  verb  expresses  action,  and  the  actor  is 
always  the  nominative  case ;  as,  "  John  runs."  Active  verbs 
are  either  transitive  or  intransitive. 

440.  An  active  verb  is  transitive,  when  it  either  has  or  may- 
have  an  object  after  it,  on  which  the  action  terminates;  as, 
«  John  beats  William." 

441.  An  active  verb  is  intransitive,  when  it  neither  has  nor 
can  have  an  object  after  it. 

442.  Passive  means  suffering  or  receiving. 

443.  When  I  say,  *'  John  is  beaten  by  William,"  is  heaten  is  a  verb, 
because  it  expresses  action  ;  and  it  is  a  passive  verb,  because  it  expresses 
the  action  received  by  John ;  and  if  John  receives  the  action,  then  he  is  the 
object  of  it :  hence, 

444.  A  passive  verb  expresses  action  or  effect  received. 

445.  The  object  is  always  its  subject  or  nominative  case. 

446.  Active  nominative^  or  actor,  "  John  strikes  William." 

447.  Passive  nominative,  or  object,  *'  William  is  struck  by 
John." 

448.  By  examining  the  foregoing  examples,  you  will  see  that  when  the 
verb  is  active,  its  nominative  is  likewise  active  ;  and  when  the  verb  is  pas- 
sive, its  nominative  is  likewise  passive. 

449.  The  passive  voice  is  a  convenient  mode  of  expression  on  occasions 
when  we  wish  to  state  what  has  been  done,  without  exposing  the  author; 
thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  William  struck  John,"  I  can,  to  avoid  alluding 
to  William,  say,  "  John  was  struck." 

XXXVII.    What  is  the  meaning  of         In  the  example,  "  John  is  beaten  by 

verb?*  William,"  which   is  the  verb?    Why? 

Why  so  called  ?  H3.  What  kind  ?  Why  ?  443. 

What  is  a  verb  ?  438.  Which  word  is  the  object  ?  Why  ?  443. 

What  is  an  active  verb  ?  439.  What,  then,  is  a  passive  verb  ?  444. 

What  is  always  its  nominative  ?  Give         Which  is  the  nominative  to  a  passive 

an  example.  439.  verb,  the  agent  or  the  object  ?  445. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  transitively         Is  the  nominative  to  an  active  verb  ac- 

of  intransitive? I  tive  or  passive  ?  Give  an  example.  448. 

How  may  active  verbs  be  divided  ?  439.         Is  the  nominative  to  a  passive  verb  ac- 

When  is  an  active  verb  transitive?  tive  or  passive?  Give  an  example.  448. 
Give  an  example.  440.  In  what  particular  is  the  passive  voice 

When  is  an  active  verb  intransitive  ?  a  convenient  form  of  expression  ?   Give 

Give  an  example.  441.  an  example.  449. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  passive!  442.         What  is  the  meaning  of  neuter  1^ 

•  Se«  question  to  142.        f  See  question  to  150.       %  See  question  to  152.        §  See  quertion  to  157. 


MOOD.  63 

460.  A  neuter  verb  is  one  that  is  neither  active  nor  passive, 
expressing  simply  either  being  or  existence  in  a  certain  state ; 
as,  "  He  51^5,"  "  He  is  at  home." 


XXXVIII.     MOOD,  OR  MODE. 

451.  Mood,  or  mode,  is  the  manner  of  representing  action 
or  being. 

452.  The  indicative  mood  is  used  simply  for  indicating  or 
declaring  a*  thing,  or  asking  a  question  ;  as,  "  I  walk ;"  "  Do  I 
walk?' 

453.  The  potential  mood  is  used  for  expressing  possi- 
bility, liberty,  power,  will,  or  obligation,  either  with  or  without 
asking  a  question ;  as,  "  I  may  go ;"  "  May  I  go  1"  "  He  must 
read,"  &c. 

454.  Of  the  subjunctive  mood.  The  term  siibjunctive  signifies  subjoin- 
ed or  added  to. 

455.  When  I  say,  "  I  will  go,  if  he  desire  it,"  the  phrase,  **  if  he  desire 
it,"  is  added  on  to  the  one  before  it:  hence,  we  say,  "  if  he  desire  it,"  is 
in  the  subjunctive  mood.  The  term,  however,  is  Hmited  to  such  sentences 
as  are  preceded  by  the  conjunctions  if,  unless,  although,  except,  lest,  &,c., 
which  imply  doubt  or  some  uncertainty. 

456.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  for  expressing  doubt  or 
uncertainty. 

457.  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  may  be  expressed  in  two  different 
forms.  It  is  equally  correct  to  say,  '*  If  he  is  poor,  he  is  respected,"  and, 
*'  It  he  he  studious,  he  will  excel."  The  verbs  be  and  is  are  both  in  the 
present  tense  ;  and  since  each  has  the  conjunction  if  before  it,  each  is  in 
the  subjunctive  mood. 

458.  The  phrase;  "  If  he  he  studious,"  means  the  same  as,  "  If  he  will 
be  studious;"  it  therefore  plainly  implies  future  time. 

459.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  phrase,  "  If  he  is  poor,"  the  sense  plainly 
is,  "  If  he  is  now,  at  the  present  time,  poor,"  without  any  reference  to 
future  time. 

460.  Hence  it  appears,  that,  in  one  form  of  the  verb,  doubt  only  is  im- 
plied ;  and  in  the  other,  both  doubt  and  future  time. 

What  is  a  neuter  verb  ?  Give  an  exam-  How  is  the  term  subjunctive  limited  ? 

pie.  450.  455. 

How  many  kinds  of  verbs  are  there,  What  is  the  subjunctive  mood  used 

and  what  are  they?  438.  for?  45(5. 

XXXVIII.    What  is  the  meaning  of  How  many  different  forms  has  it?  457. 

moodl  166.  Give  an  example  of  each.  457. 

What  is  mood?  451.  In  what  tense  are  the  verbs  be  and  is7 

What  is  the  meaning  of  indicative  ?  457. 

168.  In  what  mood  is  each  with  the  con- 

What  is  the  indicative  mood  used  for  ?  junction  if  before  it  ?  457. 

Give  an  example.  452.  What  does,  "  If  he  be  studious,"  mean. 

What  is  the  meaningr  of  potential?  212.  as  it  respects  time  ?  453. 

What  is  the  potential  mood  used  for?  What  tense,  then,  is  referred  to?  458. 

Give  an  example.  453.  What  does,  "  If  he  is  poor,"  mean,  in 

What  is  the  meaning  of  subjunctive?  respect  to  time?  459. 

454.  What  idea, then,  is  implied  in  the  one 
In  what  mood  is,  "  If  he  desire  it  ?"  form  ?  460. 

455.  What  two  ideaJi  in  the  other  form  ?  460. 


64  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

461.  The  verb  is  corresponds  with  the  common  form  of  the  verb  fo  fte, 
in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense;  as,  "I  am,  you  are,  he  is:" — we 
will,  therefore,  when  the  verb  is  varied  as  usual,  call  it  the  common  form 
of  the  subjunctive  mood  ;  and  when  the  verb  is  not  varied  in  the  different 
persons,  we  will  call  it  the  subjunctive  form,  since  this  form  is  peculiar  to 
this  mood.  You  should  here  be  informed  that  this  distinction  relates  only 
to  the  present  tense,  it  being  customary  to  vary  the  terminations  of  the  verb 
in  the  remaining  tenses,  as  usual. 

462.  The  following  general  rules  will  direct  you  in  the  proper  use  of  the 
subjunctive  mood : 

463.  When  any  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  present  tense, 
has  a  reference  to  future  time,  we  should  use  the 

SUBJUNCTIVE   FORM. 

Present  Tense. 

464.  Singular.        *  Plural, 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  or  you  love.  2.  If  ye  or  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  If  they  love. 

465.  When  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  present  tense, 
has  no  reference  to  future  time,  we  should  use  the 

COMMON   FORM. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  lovest,  or"}  2.  If  ye  love,  or 7 
If  you  love.         3  I^  y^^  \o\e.    3 

3.  If  he  loves.  3.  If  they  love. 

466.  Other  conjunctions,  besides  if,  are  used  before  the  subjunctive 
mood.  If  is  perhaps  used  most  frequently,  because  it  implies  doubt  more 
strongly  than  most  others. 

467.  By  the  foregoing,  you  may  perceive  that  when  the  verb  is  in  the  sub- 
junctive form,  some  auxiliary  verb  is  always  understood ;  as,  '*  He  will  not  be 
pardoned  unless  he  repent,"  that  is,  **  unless  he  will  repent ;"  '*  If  thou  ever 
return,  thou  shouldst  be  thankful,"  that  is,  "  if  thou  shouldst  ever  return." 

468.  A  verb  in  the  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the  subjunctive, 
common  form,  simply  by  placing  a  conjunction,  implying  doubt,  before  it; 
as,  **I  walk,"  the  indicative  mood,  becomes  subjunctive  by  prefixing  if; 
thus,  "  If  I  walk." 

469.  In  like  manner,  a  verb  in  the  potential  may  be  changed  to  the  sub- 
junctive ;  as,  **  I  can  go,"  is  the  potential ;  "  If  I  can  go,"  tlie  subjunctive. 

470.  Of  the  IMPERATIVE  MOOD.  When  I  say,  *'  John,  mind  your  book," 
I  command  John  to  do  something  ;  and  because  imperative  means  command- 
ing, we  say  that  mind,  in  the  phrase  above,  is  in  the  imperative  mood. 

Vl^ith  what  does  the  verb  is  corre-  What  does,  "  He  will  not  be  pardoned 

spend  ?  461.  unless  he  repent,"  mean  ?  467. 

How  is  the  verb  varied  in  the  common  What,  then,  is  understood  ?  467. 

form  of  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  461.  '*  If  thou  ever  return,  thou  shouldst  be 

Why  called  common  ?    How  varied  in  thankful :"  what  does  this  mean  ?  467. 

the  subjunctive  form?    Why  called  sub-  What,  then,  is  understood  ?  467. 

^"how  is  t'his'distinction  limited?  461.  .J^J'^'J'  ^'^^^^  understood  in  this 
How  are  the  remaining  tenses  varied?  '^how  may  a  verb  in  the  indicative 
When  do  we  use  the  subjunctive  form  ?     ^«^  ^^  converted  into  the  subjunctive  ? 


463. 


468. 


When  do  we  use  the  common  form  ?  In  what  mood  is,  "  John,  mind  your 

465.  studies?"  Why?  470. 

Why  is  the  conjunction  if  used  most  What  is  the  meaning  of  imperative? 

Oequently  in  the  subjunctive  mood?  466.  470. 


MOOD.  65 

471.  This  mood,  for  reasons  assigned  before,  (214.)  embraces  the  follow- 
mg  particulars : 

1.  Command;  as,  "John,  sit  up." 

2.  Entreaty ;  as,  "Do  visit  me." 

3.  Exhorting;  as,  "Remember  my  counsel." 

4.  Permitting  ;  as,  "Go  in  peace." 

472.  The  imperative  mood,  then,  is  used  for  commanding, 
entreating,  exhorting,  or  permitting. 

473.  The  application  of  this  mood  is  limited  to  the  second  person ;  as, 
"  John,  come  to  me  ;"  because,  in  uttering  a  command,  making  an  entreaty, 
(fee.  we  must  necessarily  address  some  one ;  hence,  you  can  see  the  reason 
why  this  mood  has  but  one  person,  viz.  the  second. 

474.  We  cannot,  with  any  propriety,  command  a  person  to-day,  or  in 
present  time,  to  do  any  thing  in  past  time,  yesterday  for  instance ;  con-  , 
sequently  a  verb  in  this  mood  cannot  have  any  past  tense. 

475.  When  I  command  a  person  to  do  any  thing,  the  performance  of  the 
command  must  take  place  in  a  period  of  time  subsequent  to  that  of  the  com- 
mand ;  that  is,  in  future  time  ;  but  the  command  itself  must,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case,  take  place  in  present  time :  this  mood,  therefore,  can- 
not, strictly  speaking,  have  any  future  tense :  hence, 

476.  A  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  must  be  in  the  present  tense,  and  in 
the  second  person. 

477.  Of  the  infinitive  mood.  In  the  phrases,  "  John  begins  to  sing," 
"  The  boys  begin  to  sing,"  "  Thou  beginnest  to  sing,"  you  perceive  that 
the  verb  to  sing  is  not  varied  to  correspond  with  the  number  and  person  of 
its  different  agents,  John,  the  hoys,  and  thou  :  hence,  to  sing  is  said  not  to 
be  limited  either  by  person  or  number. 

478.  This  mood,  then,  is  properly  denominated  infinitive,  signifying  not 
limited  :  hence, 

479.  The  infinitive  mood  is  used  to  express  an  action  not 
limited  either  by  person  or  number. 

480.  To,  the  usual  sign  of  this  mood,  is  sometimes  understood ;  as,  "  Let 
me  go,"  instead  of,  "  Let  me  to  go ;"  "  I  heard  him  say  it,"  for,  "  I  heard 
him  to  say  it."  This  little  word  to,  when  used  before  verbs  in  this  man- 
ner, is  not  a  preposition,  but  forms  a  part  of  the  verb,  and,  in  parsing, 
should  be  so  considered. 

481.  From  the  foregoing,  it  appears  that  there  are  five 
moods  —  the  indicative,  the  imperative,  the  potential,  the  sub- 
junctive, and  the  infinitive. 

How  many  particulars  does  this  mood  What  is  the  meaning  of  infinitivet 

dmhrace?  471.  Why  so  many?  214.  478. 

What,  then,  is  the  imperative  mood  In  what  mood  is  sin^,  in  the  phrase?, 

used  for  ?  472.    Give  an  example  of  com-  "  John  begins  to  sing,"  "  The  boys  begin 

manding?  one  of  entreating?  one  of  to  sing,"   "Thou   beginnest  to    sing?" 

„'xhorting?  one  of  permitting?  471.  477,  478. 

How  many  persons  has  this  mood  ?  473.  In  what  particulars  is  this  mood  reck- 

What  person  is  it?  473.  oned  not  to  be  limited  ?  477. 

Has  this  mood  any  past  tense  ?  Why  ?  What,  then,   is   the  infinitive  mood 

474.  used  for  ?  479. 

When  I  command  a  person,  when,  if  What  is  the  usual  sign  of  this  mood  ? 

at  all,  must  the  performance  of  the  com-  480. 

mand  take  place?  475.  Is  it  always  expressed?    Give  an  ex- 

When,  or  in  what  time,  must  the  com-  ample.  480. 

mand  itself  be  given  ?  475.  How   is    the    sign  to  to  be   parsed? 

Has  this  mood,  then,  any  future  tense  ?  480- 

475.  Why  parsed  with  the  verb  ?  480. 
How  many  tenses,  then,  has  it  ?  How  How  many  moods  are  there,  and  what 

many  persons  ?  476.  are  they  ?  481. 

.5 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


XXXIX.     OF  TENSE. 

482.  The  present  tense  expresses  what  is  now  taking  place ; 
as,  "  John  swims." 

483.  This  tense  is  often  employed  to  express  the  actions  of  persons  long 
since  dead  ;  as,  "  Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes  well." 

484.  The  present  tense,  preceded  by  the  words  «J7^e»,  before,  after,  as 
soon  as,  &c.,  is  sometimes  used  to  point  out  the  relative  time  of  a  future 
action;  as,  "  When  he  arrives,  he  will  hear  the  news." 

485.  This  tense  is  elegantly  applied  to  quahties  and  things  which  are  in 
their  nature  unchangeable;  as,  "  Tnith  is  eternal;"  "  William  boldly 
asserted  there  was  no  God;"  properly,  "  is  no  God." 

486.  In  animated  (1.)  historical  narrations,  (2.)  this  tense  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  imperfect ;  as,  "He  e?iters  the  territory  of  the  peaceable  in- 
habitants ;  he  fights  and  conquers,  takes  an  immense  booty,  which  he 
divides  among  his  soldiers,  and  returns  home  to  enjoy  an  empty  triumph." 

487.  The  imperfect  tense  expresses  what  took  place  in  time 
past,  however  distant ;  as,  "  John  died." 

488.  The  perfect  tense  expresses  what  has  taken  place,  and 
conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present  time ;  as,  "  I  have  finished 
my  letter." 

489.  When  any  particular  period  of  past  time  is  specified  or  alluded  to, 
we  use  the  imperfect  tense;  as,  '*  John  wrote  yesterday ;"  but  when  no 
particular  past  time  is  specified,  we  use  the  perfect  tense  ;  as,  "  I  have  read 
Virgil  many  times." 

490.  The  perfect  tense  and  the  imperfect  tense  both  denote  a  thing  that 
is  past ;  but  the  former  denotes  it  in  such  a  manner  that  there  is  still  actually 
remaining  some  part  of  the  time  ta  slide  away,  wherein  we  declare  the 
thing  has  been  done ;  whereas  the  imperfect  denotss  the  thing  or  action 
past,  in  such  a  manner,  that  nothing  remains  of  that  time  in  which  it  was 
done.  If  we  speak  of  the  present  century,  we  say,  "Philosophers  have 
made  great  discoveries  in  the  present  century  ;"  but  if  we  speak  of  the  last 
century,  we  say,  "  Philosophers  made  great  discoveries  in  the  last  century." 
— '"  He  has  been  much  afflicted  this  year."  "  I  have  this  week  read  the 
kmg's  proclamation."  ' '  I  have  heard  great  news  this  morning."  In  these 
instances.  He  has  been,  I  have  read,  and  heard,  denote  things  that  are  past ; 

XXXIX.  What  is  the  meaning  of  pre-  What  does  the  perfect  tense  express? 

sent?  173.  Give  an  example.  488. 

What  does  the  present  tense  express?  "  John  wrote  yesterday."  What  tense 

482.    Give  an  example.  482.  is  the  verb  in  here?  489. 

"  Seneca  reasons  well."    What  tense  Why  is  this  tense  used  ?  489. 

is  employed  here  ?  Why?  483.  "  Ihave  read  Virgil  many  times."  Why 

In   the  phrase,  "  When   he  arrives,"  is  the  perfect  tense  used  here  ?  489. 

future  time  is  alluded  to:  why,  then,  is  What  do  both  the  perfect  and  imper- 

the  present  employed  ?  484.  feet  denote  ?  490. 

Do  we  sav,  "  There  is,"  or,  "  there  was  How  does  the  former  denote  il  ?  4£0. 

no  God?"  Why?  485.  How  does  the  latter?  490.                     * 

What  is  the  meaning  of  ani^nafcd?  486.  Do  we  say,  "Philosophers  made"  or, 

Meaning  of  narrations  7  486.  "  have  mode,  great  discoveries  in  the  pre- 

"  He  enters  the  territory,"  &c.  Why  is  sent  century  ?"  Why  ?  4D0. 

the  present  tense  used  ?  486.  Which  tense  do  we  use  in  speaking  of 
What  is  the  meaning  of  impcr/eci?  181.  the  last  century  ?  490.  Give  an  exam- 
How  came  this  term  to  be  used,  to  de-  pie.  490. 

note  an  action  past  and  finished  ?*  "  I  have  this  week  read  the  king's  pro- 

What  does  the  imperfect  tense  express  ?  clamation."    "  I  have  heard  great  news 

487.    Give  an  example.  487.  this  morning."    Which    are  tlie  verbs 

Meaning  of  perfect?^  used  in  these  two  sentences  ?  4!j0. 

(1.)  Lively.  (2.)  Descriptions,  or  fellins  what  has  beeu  done. 

*  See  qnestiou  to  182.  t  finished,  or  coiuidetB. 


TENSES.  — PARTICIPLES.  C7 

but  they  occurred  in  this  year,  in  this  week,  and  to-day ;  and  still  there 
remains  a  part  of  this  year,  week,  and  day,  whereof  I  speak. 

490 — 1.  In  general,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  applied  wherever  the  action 
is  connected  with  the  present  time,  by  the  actual  existence,  either  of  the 
author  or  of  the  work,  though  it  may  have  been  performed  many  centuries 
ago  ;  but  if  neither  the  author  nor  the  work  now  remains,  it  cannot  be  used. 
We  may  say,  **  Cicero  has  written  orations  ;"  but  we  cannot  say,  "  Cicero 
has  written  poems  ;"  because  the  orations  are  in  being,  but  the  poems  are 
lost.  Speaking  of  priests  in  general,  we  may  say,  '*  They  have,  in  all  ages, 
claimed  great  powers;"  because  the  general  order  of  the  priesthood  still 
exists :  but  if  we  speak  of  the  Druids,  as  any  particular  order  of  priests, 
which  does  not  now  exist,  we  cannot  use  this  tense.  We  cannot  say, 
•*  The  Druid  priests  have  claimed  great  powers  ;"  but  must  say,  "  The  Druid 
priests  claimed  great  powers  ;"  because  that  order  is  now  totally  extinct. 

491.  The  pluperfect  tense  expresses  what  had  taken  place  at 
some  past  time  mentioned ;  as,  "  I  had  finished  my  letter  before 
my  father  returned." 

492.  The  first  future  tense  expresses  what  will  take  place ; 
as,  "  John  will  come." 

493.  The  second  future  expresses  what  will  have  taken 
place,  at  or  before  some  future  time  mentioned ;  as,  "  I  shall 
have  finished  my  business  before  the  steam-boat  starts." 

494.  Tense  is  the  distinction  of  time,  and  admits  of  six 
variations,  namely — the  present,  the  imperfect,  the  perfect,  the 
pluperfect,  and  the  first  and  second  future  tenses. 


XL.     OF  PARTICIPLES. 

495.  In  the  phrase,  "I  found  a  man  laboring  in  the  field,"  the  word 
laboring  shows  what  the  man  was  doing,  and  therefore  resembles  a  verb. 
When  I  say,  "The  laboring  man  should  not  be  wronged,"  laboring  is 
joined  to  the  noun  man,  to  describe  it,  and  therefore  resembles  an  adjective. 

496.  The  word  laboring,  then,  partakes  of  the  nature  of  two  different 
parrs  of  speech ;  and  since  participle  signifies  partaking  of,  we  will  call 
Buch  words  as  laboring,  participles. 

What  do  they  denote  ?  When  did  these  Give  an  example.  492.    Why  called  first 

things  occur?  49().  future?* 

To  what  may  the  perfect  tense  in  gen-  What  does  the  second  future  express? 

eral  be  applied  ?  Wliat  exception  is  men-  Give  an  example.  493. 

tioned  ?  490 — 1.  How  many  tenses  are  there  in  all,  and 

Do  we  say,  "  Cicero  wrote,"  or,  "  fuis  what  are  they  ?  494. 

written,  orations?"  "Cicero  wrote,"  or,  In  what  mood  is,  "He  runs?"  Why? 

*'  has  writteii,"  poems  7"  Why?  490—1.  452.    "Does  ho  run?"   Why?  452.     "I 

In  speaking  of  priests,  in  general,  why  may  run  ?"  Why  ?  453.    "  Should  1  have 

do  we  say,  "  They  have  in  all  ages  claim-  studied  ?"  Why  ?  453.    "If  he  accept  ?" 

ed  great  powers?"  490— I.  Why?    45G.    "If   he  accepts?"    Why? 

Can  we  say,  "  The  Druid  priests  have  456.    "  To  sing?"  Whv  ?  479. 

claimed  great  powers?"  What  should  we  In  what  tense  is,  "He  sings?"  Why? 

say?  Why?  490—1.  482.    "Did  he  sing?"  Why?  487.    "He 

What  is  the  meaning  of  pluperfect?  has  read?"  488.  Wliv?    "Had  he  writ- 

186.  ten  ?"  491.  Why  ?    "Shall  he  go  ?"  492. 

What  does  the  pluperfect  tense  ex-  "  I  shall  have  gone  ?"  Why  ?  493. 

press?  491.    Give  an  example.  491.  XL.  What  parts  of  speech    does  labor. 

Moaning  of /iftttre?  177.  i/j^  resemhle  ?    Give  an  example.  495 

What  does  the  first  future  express?  What  is  the  meaning  of  pa  rticip/e?  496. 

*  See  question  to  191, 


68  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

497.  All  participles  are  derived  from  verbs ;  thus,  from  labor  comes 
laboring  ;    iroiii  h»at,  heating ;  rejoice,  rejoicing,  &lc.'.  hence, 

498.  The  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  adjective. 

499.  When  I  say,  "  John  is  writing,"  the  participle  writing  shows  what 
John  is  now  doing,  but  has  not  finished ;  writing,  then,  may  be  called  a 
present  participle :  hence, 

500.  The  present  participle  expresses  what  is  now  taking 
place,  but  not  finished. 

501 — 1.  This  participle  always  ends  in  ing  ;  as,  sinning,  fighting,  weep- 
ing, loving,  &c.  There  are  many  words  of  this  termination,  which  are 
not  participles ;  as,  morning,  evening,  which  are  nouns ;  uninterestitig, 
unsatisfying,  which  are  adjectives.  The  fact  that  these  cannot  be  formed 
from  verbs  will  furnish  you  with  a  certain  rule  for  distinguishing  the  par- 
ticiple from  all  other  words  of  the  same  termination  ;  as,  for  instance,  un- 
interesting, we  know,  is  not  a  participle,  because  there  is  no  such  verb  as 
uninterest,  from  which  to  form  it. 

501.  "  The  letter  is  written."  Here  the  participle  written  shows  that 
the  act  of  writing  is  past  and  finished ;  it  may  then  be  called  a  perfect  par- 
ticiple :  hence, 

502.  The  perfect  participle  expresses  what  is  past  and  finished. 
502 — 1.  This  participle  may  always  be  distinguished  by  its  making  sense 

with  having  ;  thus,  having  written,  having  sung,  &c.     Here  written  and 
sihng  are  perfect  participles. 

503.  "John,  having  written  his  letter,  sealed  it."  Here  you  doubtless; 
perceive  that  the  act  of  writing  took  place  before  that  of  seaUng  ;  also,  that 
the  participle  is  composed  of  two  words,  having  and  written  ;  it  may  then 
be  called  a  compound  participle,  and  because  it  denotes  also  an  action  past 
and  finished,  it  may  very  properly  be  called  a  compound  perfect  participle  : 
hence, 

504.  The  compound  perfect  participle  expresses  what  took 
place  before  something  else  mentioned. 

504 — 1.  This  participle  is  formed  by  placing  the  present  participle  having 
before  the  perfect  participle  of  any  verb  ;  as,  having  fought,  having  ciphered. 


XLI.    FORMATION  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VERB. 

505.  Struck  is  a  perfect  participle,  from  the  verb   strike,  and  this  you 
know,  because  it  makes  sense  joined  with  having  ;  as,  having  struck. 

From  what  are  all  participles  derived?  Having  written,  having  sung.    Which 

497.    Give  an  example.  497.  are  the  perfect  participles  here?  502. 

What  is  a  participle  ?  498.  "  John ,  having  written  his  letter,  seal- 
When  I  say,  "  John  is  writing,"  what  ed  it."    Which  took  place  first,  the  wri' 
Aoes  writing  show  1  499.  ting  or  sealing?  503. 

What,  then,  may  it  be  called?  499.  Of  what  is  this  participle  composed  if 

What,  then,  is  a  present  participle.'  503. 

500.  What,  then,  may  it  be  called  ?  503. 

What  does  this  participle  always  end  What  does  having  written  denote  in 

in?  500 — 1.    Give  an  example.  500—1.  reference  to  time  and  action  ?  503. 

Are  all  words  ending  in  ing  partici-  What  may  it  thence  be  called  ?  503. 
pies?    Give  an  example  of  nouns  of  this  What  does  a  compound  perfect  parti- 
termination  ?  of  adjectives?  500—3.  ciple  express?  504. 

How,    then,    can    the    participle     be  How  is   this   participle  formed?  504. 

distinguished?       Give      an     example.  Give  an  example.  504. 

500 — 1.  XLI.  Striking,  struck,   having  struck. 

"The  letter  is  written."    What  docs  Here  are  three  different  participles :  can 

the  participle  wn<<e7i  show  here?  What,  vou  tell  which   is  the   present?  Why? 

then,  may  it  be  called?  501.  500.    Perfect?    Why?    503.    Compound 

What  is  a  perfect  participle  ?  502.  perfect  ?  Why  ?  503. 

How  may  this  participle    always  be  What  kind  of  a  participle  is  struck? 

known?    Give  an  example.  502— 1.  505.    How  do  you  know  this?  505. 


VERBS.  69 

506.  hy  you  doubtless  recollect,  is  a  variation  of  the  verb  to  he  ;  as,  "I 
am,  you  are,  he  is :"  now,  by  joining  is  with  struck,  we  can  form  the  pas- 
sive verb  is  struck;  "John  strikes  Joseph,"  is  active;  but,  "Joseph  is 
struck  by  John,"  is  passive. 

507.  In  these  two  examples,  you  perceive  that  the  sense  of  each  is  the 
same :  hence,  by  means  of  the  passive  verb,  we  are  enabled  to  express,  in  a 
different  form,  the  precise  meaning  of  the  active,  which,  you  will  oftentimes 
find,  contributes  not  a  little  to  the  variety  and  harmony  of  the  language. 

508.  By  examining  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  to  he,  you  will  discover 
that  it  has,  in  all,  ten  variations :  viz.  am,  art,  is,  are,  was,  wast,  were,  heeriy 
he,  and  heing.  Every  passive  verb  must  be  composed  of  one  of  these  ten 
variations,  and  the  perfect  participle  of  any  active  transitive  verb.  Thus, 
taking  was,  and  joining  it  with  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  heat,  namely, 
heaten,  we  form  the  passive  verb  was  heaten,  to  wliich  prefixing  an  object, 
or  nominative  case,  we  have  the  phrase,  "  WilHam  was  beaten." 

509.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  to  be  remembered,  that  the  passive  verb  always 
retains  the  same  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person,  that  the  verb  to  he  has, 
before  it  is  incorporated  with  the  participle  ;  thus,  "  tie  has  been,"  is  the 
indicative  perfect,  third  person  singular  ;  then,  "He  has  been  rejected,"  is 
likewise  the  indicative  perfect,  third  person  singular,  passive.  It  cannot, 
therefore,  be  difficult  to  tell  the  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person,  of  any 
passi'^^e  verb,  if  you  are  familiar  with  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  to  he. 

From  the  foregoing  particulars,  we  derive  the  following  general  rule  : 

510.  All  passive  verbs  are  formed  by  adding  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple of  any  active-transitive  verb  to  the  neuter  verb  to  he. 


XLII.    OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERB. 

511.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  by  the  help  of  which  the 
principal  verbs  are  conjugated. 

512.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  may^  can,  must,  might,  could, 
would,  should,  and  shall.  The  following  are  sometimes  aux- 
iliaries, and  sometimes  principal  verbs :  do,  be,  have,  and  wilL 

513.  When,  in  the  formation  of  any  tense,  we  use  an  auxiliary  verb,  that 
tense  is  called  a  compound  one  ;  and  the  tense  formed  by  the  principal  verb 
alone  is  called  a  simple  tense. 


XLIII.    SIGNS  OF  THE  MOODS. 
514. '  The  indicative  mood  may  be  known  by  the  sense,  or 

by  its  having  no  sign  except  in  asking  a  question ;  as,  "  Who 

comes  here?'^ 

Of  what  verb  is  the  verb  is  a  varia-  What  fact  is  mentioned  as  worthy  of 

tion  ?  506.  notice  ?  509. 

Will  you  form  a  passive  verb  with  is  What  mood,  tense,  number,  and  per- 

and  struck?  506.  son,  is,  "He  has  been?"  509.    Is,  "H^ 

"  John  strikes  Joseph."    How  may  the  has  been  rejected  ?*'  509. 

sense  of  this  sentence  be  expressed  by  a  What  will  make  the  mood,  tense,  &c. 

passive  verb  ?  506.  of  passive  verbs  familiar  ?  509. 

What  advantage  does  the  use  of  the  H^^w  are  all  passive  verbs  formed  ?  510. 

passive  verb  often  afford  us  ?  507.  XLII.    What  is  the  meaning  of  aux- 

To  what  does  it  contribute?  507.  ^^^^JlVJ^^'        •,•           .i,  ^  r,, 

.  ^.         ^        ^     '  What  are  auxiliary  verbs?  511. 

How  many  variations  has  the  verb  to  y^iw  y^y  name  them  ?  513, 

be  in  all  ?  508.    What  are  they  ?  508.  vv^at  verbs  are  used  both  as  auxiliary 

What  will  always  compose  one  part  of  and  principal  verbs  ?  512. 

a  passive  verb?  508.    What  the  other  XLIII.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  indica- 

part  ?  508.  tive  mood  ?  514.    Give  an  example.  514. 


70«  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

515.  The  potential  mood  has  for  its  signs  the  auxiliaries 
may^  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should ;  as,  "  I 
could  love,"  &c. 

516.  The  subjunctive  mood  has  usually  for  its  signs  the 
conjunctions  if,  though,  unless,  except,  whether,  and  lest ;  as, 
"  Unless  he  repent,"  &c. 

517.  The  infinitive  mood  has  usually  for  its  sign  the  word 
to  ;  as,  to  sing, 

518.  The  imperative  mood  may  be  distinguished  by  its 
always  being  in  the  second  person,  and  by  its  agreement  with 
thou,  or  ye,  or  you  ;  as,  "  Depart  thou,"  &c. 


XLIV.      SIGNS  OF  THE  TENSES   OF  THE 
INDICATIVE. 

519.  The  present  tense  has  for  its  sign  the  first  form  of  the 
verb ;  as,  weep,  remain,  &c. ;  excepting  the  occasional  use  of 
do  ;  as,  "  I  do  learn." 

520.  The  imperfect  tense  has  no  auxiliary  for  a  sign,  except 
did,  which  is  sometimes  used.  If,  however,  the  verb  is  not  in 
the  present  tense,  and  has  no  auxiliary,  it  follows  that  it  is  in 
the  imperfect ;  as,  "  I  fought." 

521.  The  perfect  tense  has  for  its  sign  the  word  have;  as, 
have  loved, 

522.  The  pluperfect  has  for  its  sign  had  ;  as,  had  loved, 

523.  The  first  future  has  for  its  sign  shall  or  will ;  as,  shall 
or  will  love, 

524.  The  second  future  has  for  its  sign  shall  have  or  will    ^ 
have  ;  as,  shall  have  loved,  or  ivill  have  loved. 

525.  The  indicative  mood  has  six  tenses.  >v        v  \ 

526.  The  subjunctive  mood  has  six  tenses.  .r^,  .  ,    \j 

527.  The  potential  mood  has  four  tenses.  ^         J 

528.  The  infinitive  mood  has  two  tenses. 

529.  The  imperative  mood  has  one  tense. 

What  is  the  sign  of  the  potential  mood?  Sign  of  the  perfect  7  521.    Give  an  ei- 

515.    Give  an  example.  515.  ample.  521. 

What  is  the  sign  of  the  subjunctive  Sign  of  the  pluperfect  ?  522.    Give  an 

mood  ?  516.    Give  an  example.  516.  example.  522. 

"wK*':™"^"^""'""';^."-.            .  SiTnofSsecondfuture?524.    Give 

What  IS  tTie  sign  of  the  imperative?  an  example.  .524. 

518.  Give  an  example.  518.  f]ow  many  tenses  has  the  indicative 
XLTV.    What  is  the  sign  of  the  pre-  mood?  525. 

sent  indicative  ?  519.    Give  an  example.  How  many  the  subjunctive  ?  526. 

519.  How  many  the  potential  ?  527. 
Sign  of  the  imperfect?  520.    Give  an         How  many  the  infinitive?  528. 

example.  520.  How  many  the  imperative  ?  529. 


y 


VERBS. 


71 


XLV.    CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

530.  When  I  ask  you  to  raise  your  voice,  in  reading,  you  readily  under- 
stand what  I  mean  by  voice  ;  but  in  grammar,  its  application  is  somewhat 
peculiar.  Grammatically  considered,  it  refers  to  the  active  and  passive 
nature  of  verbs. 

531.  The  CONJUGATION  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combination 
and  arrangement  of  its  several  numbers,  persons,  moods,  and 
tenses. 

532.  The  conjugation  of  an  active  verb  is  styled  the 
ACTIVE  VOICE,  and  that  of  a  passive  verb  the  passive  voice. 

533.  Verbs  are  called  regular,  when  they  form  their  im- 
perfect tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  their  perfect  parti- 
ciple, by  the  addition  of  ed  to  the  verb  in  the  present  tense,  or 
d  only  when  the  verb  ends  in  e  ;  as, 

Fres,  Tense,       Imp,  Tense,       Perf,  Participle, 
I  favour.  I  favoured.  Favoured. 

1  love.  I  loved.  Loved. 

534.  When  a  verb  does  not  form  its  imperfect  tense  and 
perfect  participle  in  this  manner,  it  is  called  an  irregular 
VERB ;  as, 


Pres.   Tense. 
I  am. 


Imp,  Tense, 
I  was. 


Perf,  Participle, 
Been. 


535.  The  regular  verb  love^  and  the  irregular  verb  to  be, 
are  conjugated  as  follows  :  — 

COITJUGilTZOX7. 

TO   LOVE   AND    TO   BE, 

ACTIVE     and     PASSIVE     VOICE     CONTRASTED. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


ACTIVE   VOICE. 

Singular. 

1  Pers.  I  love. 

2  Pers.  You  love. 

3  Pers.  He  loves. 

Plural. 

1  Pers.  We  love. 

2  Pers.  You  love. 

3  Pers.  They  love. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 

PASSIVE   VOICE. 

Singular. 

1  Pers.  I  am  loved. 

2  Pers.  You  are  loved. 

3  Pers.  He  is  loved. 

Plural. 

1  Pers.  We  are  loved. 

2  Pers.  You  are  loved. 

3  Pers.  They  are  loved. 


NEUTER. 

Singular, 

1  Pers.  I  am. 

2  Pers.  You  are. 

3  Pers.  He  is. 

Plural. 

1  Pers.  We  are. 

2  Pers.  You  are. 

3  Pers.  They  are. 


XLV.  What  does  voice  mean  in  gram- 
mar? 530. 

Meaning  of  conjugation?  217. 

What  is  the  conjugation  of  an  active 
verb  styled  ?  532. 

\/hat  the  conjugation  of  a  passive 
verb!  532. 


When  are  verbs  called  regular?  533. 
Give  an  example.  531. 

Will  you  repeat  after  me  the  present 
tense,  and  name  the  imperfect  tense  and 
perfect  participle,  of  the  \eths  favour? 
love  7  533. 

When  is  a  verb  called  irregular  ?  534. 
Give  an  example.  534. 


72 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

1.  I  loved. 

2.  You  loved. 

3.  He  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  loved. 

2.  You  loved. 

3.  They  loved. 

Singular. 

1.  I  have  loved. 

2.  You  have  loved. 

3.  He  has  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  have  loved. 

2.  You  have  loved. 

3.  They  have  loved. 

Singular. 

1.  I  had  loved. 

2.  You  had  loved. 

3.  He  had  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  had  loved. 

2.  You  had  loved. 

3.  They  had  loved. 


IMPERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  I  was  loved. 

2.  You  were  loved. 

3.  He  was  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  were  loved. 

2.  You  were  loved. 

3.  They  were  loved. 

PERFECT    TENSE. 
Singular. 

1.  I  have  been  loved. 

2.  You  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  has  been  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  You  have  been  loved. 

3.  They  have  been  loved. 

PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  I  had  been  loved. 

2.  You  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  You  had  been  loved. 

3.  They  had  been  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  I  was. 

2.  You  were. 

3.  He  was. 

Plural. 

1.  We  were. 

2.  You  were. 

3.  They  were. 

Singular. 

1.  I  have  been. 

2.  You  have  been. 

3.  He  has  been. 

Plural. 

1.  We  have  been. 

2.  You  have  been. 

3.  They  have  been. 

Singular. 

1.  I  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been. 

Plural. 

1.  We  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been. 

3.  They  had  been. 


Singular. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  love. 

2.  You    shall    or   will 

love. 

3.  He     shall     or    will 

love. 

Plural. 


FIRST    FUTURE    TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  I    shall    or   will    be     1. 
loved.  2. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be 
loved.  3. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be 
loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We     shall    or    will    1.  We  shall  or  will  be     1. 

love.  loved. 

2.  You    shall    or    will    2.  You  shall  or  will  be    2. 

love.  loved. 

3.  They    shall   or   will    3.  They  shall  or  will  be    3. 

love.  loved. 

SECOND    FUTURE    TENSE. 
Singular.  Singular. 

1. 1  shall  have  loved.        1. 1    shall    have    been    1. 

2.  You  will  have   lov-  loved.  2. 

ed.  2.  You  will  have  been    3. 

3.  He  will  have  loved.  loved. 

3.  He   will  have    been 
loved. 
Plural.  Plural. 

1.  We   shall  have  lov-     1.  We  shall  have  been    1. 

ed.  loved.  2. 

2.  You  will  have  lov-    2.  You  will  have  been    3. 

ed.  loved. 

3.  They  will  have  lov-    3.  They  will  have  been 

ed.  loved. 

Will  you  conjugate  Zouc  in  the  present  perfect?  first  future?  second  future? 
tense,  active  voice,  indicative  mood?  present  passive?  imperfect?  perfect? 
535.    In    the  imperfect?    perfect?    plu-      pluperfect  ?  first  future  ?  second  future? 


Singular. 
I  shall  or  will  be. 
You    shall    or    will 

be. 
He     shall     or    will 

be. 

Plural. 
We     shall    or    will 

be. 
You    shall    or   will 

be. 
They    shall    or  will 

be. 

Singular. 
I  shall  have  been. 
You  will  have  been. 
He  will  have  been. 


Plural. 
We  shall  have  been. 
You  will  have  been. 
They  will  have  been. 


TENSES. 


7b 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 


Singular, 

Singular. 

Singular. 

1. 1  may  or  can  love. 

1.  I  may  or  can  be  lov- 

1. 

I  may  or  can  be. 

2.  You    may    or    can 

ed. 

2. 

You     may    or    can 

love. 

2.  You  may  or  can  be 

be. 

3.  He     may     or     can 

loved. 

3. 

He     may     or     can 

love. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be 
loved. 

be. 

Plural. 

Plural. 

Plural. 

1,  We     may    or     can 

1.  We  may  or  can  be 

1. 

We     may    or     can 

love. 

loved. 

be. 

2.  You    may    or    can 

2.  You  may  or  can  be 

2. 

You    may    or    can' 

love. 

loved. 

be. 

3.  They   may   or    can 
love. 

3.  They  may  or  can  be 
loved. 

IMPERFECT   TENSE. 

3. 

They    may   or    can 
be. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

1. 1  might,  could,would, 

1. 1  might,  could,  would, 

1. 

I  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  love. 

or  should  be  loved. 

or  should  be. 

2.  You    might,    could, 

2.  You    might,    could, 

2. 

You    might,    could, 

would,   or   should 

would,   or    should 

would,   or  should 

love. 

be  loved. 

be. 

3.  He     might,     could, 

3.  He     might,     could, 

3. 

He     might,     could, 

would,   or  should 

would,   or   should 

would,   or  should 

love. 

be  loved. 

be. 

Flurah 

Plural.    • 

Plural. 

1.  We    might,    could, 

1.  We    might,    could, 

1. 

We    might,    could. 

would,   or  should 

would,  or   should 

would,   or   should 

love. 

be  loved. 

be. 

2.  You    might,    could, 

2.  You    might,    could. 

2. 

You    might,    could, 

would,   or  should 

would,   or   should 

would,   or    should 

love. 

be  loved. 

be. 

3.  They  might,  could, 

3.  They  might,  could, 

3. 

They  might,   could, 

would,   or  should 

would,   or    should 

would,   or  should 

love. 

be  loved, 
PERFECT   TENSE. 

be. 

Singular, 

Singular. 

Singular. 

1. 1  may  or  can  have 

1.  I  may  or   can  have 

1. 

I  may  or  can  have 

loved. 

been  loved. 

been. 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

2. 

You  may  or  can  have 

loved. 

been  loved. 

been. 

3.  He  mav  or  can  have 
loved.. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have 

3. 

He  may  or  can  have 

been  loved. 

been. 

Flural. 

Plural. 

Plural. 

I.  We  may  or  can  have 

1.  We  may  or  can  have 

1. 

We  may  or  can  have 

loved. 

been  loved. 

been. 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

2. 

,  You  may  or  can  have 

loved. 

been  loved. 

been. 

3.  They    may    or    can 

3.  They    may    or    can 

3. 

,  They    may    or    can 

have  loved. 

have  been  loved. 

have  been. 

Will  you  conjugate  the  verb  to  be,  or 
am,  in  the  present?  the  imperfect?  per- 
fect? pluperfect?  first  future?  second 
future  ? 

Will  you  name  the  first  person  singu- 
lar, of  the  present  indicative,  active  and 
passive,  of  love,  and  the  first  person  sin- 
gular of  the  verb  to  be  ? 
7 


The  second  person  in  like  manner?  the 
third?  the  first  person  plural?  second 
person  plural  ?  third  ?  first  person  singu- 
lar, imperfect?  second  person?  third? 
first  person  plural  ?  second  person  plural? 
third?  first  person  singular,  perfect? 
second  person  ?  third  ?  first  person  plu 
ral?  fiecond?  third? 

G 


74 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

1.  I  might,  could, would, 

or  should  have  lov- 
ed. 

2.  You    might,    could, 

would,    or   should 
have  loved. 

3.  He     might,     could, 

would,   or   should 
have  loved. 
Plural. 

1.  We    might,     could, 

would,   or  should 
have  loved. 

2.  You    might,    could, 

would,    or   should 
have  loved. 

3.  They  might,   could, 

would,   or   should 
have  loved. 


PLUPERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  Imight,  could,would, 

or  should  have  been 
loved. 

2.  You    might,    could, 

would,    or   should 
have  been  loved. 

3.  He     might,     could, 

would,    or   should 
have  been  loved. 
PluraL 

1.  We    might,     could, 

would,   or    should 
have  been  loved. 

2.  You    might,    could, 

would,    or   should 
have  been  loved. 

3.  They  might,    could, 

would,    or   should 
have  been  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  Imight,  could, 

or     should 
been. 

2.  You    might, 

would,    or 
have  been. 

3.  He     might, 

would,    or 

have  been. 

Plural. 

1.  We    might, 

would,    or 
have  been. 

2.  You    might, 

would,    or 
have  been. 

3.  They  might, 

would,    or 
have  been. 


would, 
have 

could., 
should 

could, 
should 


could, 
should 

could, 
should 

could, 
should 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  love. 

2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  he  loves. 

Plural, 

1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  they  love. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  love. 

2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  they  love. 


Singular, 

1.  If  I  loved. 

2.  If  you  loved. 

3.  If  he  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  loved. 

2.  If  you  loVed. 

3.  If  they  loved. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 

Common  Form, 
Singular, 

1.  If  I  am  loved. 

2.  If  you  are  loved. 

3.  If  h%  is  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  are  loved. 

2.  If  you  are  loved. 

3.  If  they  are  loved. 

Subjunctive  Form, 
Singular. 

1.  If  I  be  loved. 

2.  If  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  they  be  loved. 

IMPERFECT    TENSE. 

Common  Form. 
Singular. 

1.  If  I  was  loved. 

2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  was  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  they  were  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  am. 

2.  If  you  are. 

3.  If  he  is. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  are. 

2.  If  you  are. 

3.  If  they  are. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  be. 

2.  If  you  be. 

3.  If  he  be. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  you  be. 

3.  If  they  be. 


1.  If  I  was. 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  he  was. 

Plural, 

1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  they  were. 


Will  j'ou  conjugate  love  in  like  man- 
ner, through  each  person  and  voice  of  the 
pluperfect  ?  first  and  second  futures?  pre- 
sent potential  ?  imperfect?  perfect?  plu- 
perfect? present  subjunctive,  common 
form  ?  subjunctive  form  ?  imperfect,  com- 
mon form?  subjunctive  form?  perfect? 
pluperfect?  first  and  second  futures  ? 


Will  you  conjugate  lo.ve  in  the  present 
indicative  active?  imperfect  ?  perfect  ? 
pluperfect?  first  and  second  futures? 
present  passive?  imperfect?  perfect? 
pluperfect?  first  and  second  futures? 
present  indicative  of  to  be?  imperfect? 
perfect  ?  pluperfect  ?  first  and  second 
futures  ? 


TENSES. 


75 


Singular. 

1.  If  X  loved. 

2.  If  you  loved. 

3.  If  he  loved. 

Flural 

1.  If  we  loved. 

2.  If  you  loved. 

3.  If  they  loved. 


Subjunctive  Form. 
Singular. 

1.  If  I  were  loved.  1. 

2.  If  you  were  loved.  2. 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  3. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  were  loved.  1. 

2.  If  you  were  loved.  2. 

3.  If  they  were  loved.  3. 


Smgular. 
If  I  were. 
If  you  were. 
If  he  were. 

Plural. 
If  we  were. 
If  you  were. 
If  they  were. 


The  remaining  tenses  are  all  of  the  Common  Form. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  have  loved. 

2.  If  you  have  loved. 

3.  If  he  has  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  have  loved. 

2.  If  you  have  loved. 

3.  If  they  have  loved. 


Si,ngular. 

1.  If  I  had  loved. 

2.  If  you  had  loved. 

3.  If  he  had  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  had  loved. 

2.  If  you  had  loved. 

3.  If  they  had  loved. 


PERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  have  been  loved. 

2.  If  you  have  been  lov- 

ed. 

3.  If  he  has  been  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  have  been  lov- 

ed. 

2.  If  you  have  been  lov- 

ed. 

3.  Ifthey  have  been  lov- 

ed. 

PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  had  been  loved. 

2.  Ifyou  had  been  loyed. 

3.  If  he  had  been  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  had  been  loved. 

2.  If  you  had  been  lov- 

ed. 

3.  Ifthey  had  been  loved. 

FIRST    FUTURE    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  have  been. 

2.  If  you  have  been. 

3.  If  he  has  been. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  have  been. 

2.  If  you  have  been. 

3.  If  they  have  been 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  had  been. 

2.  If  you  had  been. 

3.  If  he  had  been. 
Plural. 

l.'If  we  had  been. 

2.  If  you  had  been. 

3.  If  they  had  been. 


Singular.  Singular.  Singular. 

1.  If    I    shall    or  will    1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be  1.  If    I    shall    or   will 

love.  loved.  be. 

2.  If  you  shall  or  will    2.  If  you  shall  or  will  be  2.  If  you  shall  or  will 

love.  loved.  be. 

3.  If  he   shall  or  will    3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be  3.  If  he   shall  or  will 

love.  loved.  be. 


Will,  you  conjugate  love  through  each 
person  of  the  present  indicative  active? 
passive?  the  neuter  verb  to  he?  also  in 
the  imperfect  ?  perfect  ?  pluperfect  ?  first 
and  second  futures?  present  potential? 
imperfect?  perfect?  pluperfect?  present 
subjunctive,  in  both  forms?  perfect? 
pluperfect?  first  and  second  futures? 

What  is  the  present  infinitive  active  of 
lovel  present  passive?  present  of  to  fie  ? 
perfect  active  of  love?  perfect  passive? 
perfect  of  to  6c?  present  participle  active 
of  love?  present  passive?  present  of  to 
he?  perfect  of  Icwc?  perfect  of  to  he? 
compound  perfect  of  love,  in  the  active  ? 
in  the  passive  of  to  be? 

In  what  voice  and  mood  is,  "  I  love  ?" 
*'  They  love  ?"  "  They  are  loved  ?"  "  Are 
they  loved  ?"  "  I  do  love  ?"  What  is  the 
force  of  do  ?  In  what  voice  and  mood  is, 
*'The  man  loved?"  "He  has  loved?" 


"  He  has  been  loved  ?"  "  Has  he  been 
loved?"  "^he  had  loved?"  "She  had 
been  loved?"  "We  shall  love?"  '  We 
shall  be  loved  ?"  "  Shall  I  have  been 
loved?"  "May  I  love?"  "May  I  be 
loved  ?"  "  She  may  have  loved  ?"  "  She 
may  have  been  loved  ?"  "  If  I  love  ?" 
"  If  he  be  loved?"  "  If  he  is  loved  ?"  "  If 
I  love?"  "  If  I  were  loved"?"  "  If  I  was 
loved?" 

In  what  tense  is,  "  They  love  ?"  "  Ye 
are  lovisd  ?"  "  She  did  love  ?"  "  We  were 
loved?"  "They  shall  love?"  "They 
shall  be  loved?"  "I  may  be  loved?" 
"  If  she  has  been  loved  ?" 

In  what  number  and  person  is,  "  I 
love?"  "We  love?"  "He  does  love?" 
"  The  man  did  love  ?"  "  The  men  were 
loved?"  "If  he  love?"  "If  I  was?" 
"  If  I  were  ?"  "  If  ye  have  been  ?"  "  If 
ye  have  loved  ?"  "  You  may  be  loved  ?" 


76 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Plural.  Plural.  Plural. 

1.  If  we  shall  or  will  1.  If  we  shall  or  will  be  1.  If   we   shall  or  will 

love.  loved.  be. 

2.  If  you  shall  or  will  2.  If  you  shall  or  will  be  2.  If  you  shjiU  or  will 

love.  loved.  be. 

3.  If  they  shall  or  will  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  3.  If  they  shall  or  will 

love.  be  loved.  be. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  shall  have 

ed. 

2.  If  you  shall  have 

ed. 

3.  If  he  shall  have 

ed. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  shall  have 

ed. 

2.  If  you  shall  have 

ed. 

3.  Ifthey  shall  have 

ed. 


Singular. 
,  Love  you,  or  do  you 
love. 

Plural. 
,  Love  you,  or  do  you 
love. 


Pres.  To  love. 
Per/.  To  have  loved. 


SECOND  FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular. 
lov-    1.  If  I  shall  have  been    1. 

loved.  2. 

lov-    2.  If  you  shall  have  been 

loved.  3. 

lov-    3.  If  he  shall  have  been 

loved. 
Plural. 
lov-     1.  If  we  shall  have  been    1. 

loved, 
lov-    2.  If  you  shall  have  been    2. 

loved, 
lov-    3.  If    they  shall    have    3. 

been  loved. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

2.  Be  you  loved,  or  do 

you  be  loved. 

Plural. 

2.  Be  you  loved,  or  do 

you  be  loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  To  be  loved, 
Perf.  To  have  been  lov- 
ed. 

PARTICIPLES. 


Singular. 
If  I  shall  have  been. 
If    you    shall    have 

been. 
If    he     shall    have 

been. 

Plural. 
If    we    shall    have 

been. 
If    you    shall    have 

been. 
If    they  shall    have 

been. 


Singular. 
2.  Be  you,   or  do  you 
be.  1 

Plural.  % 

2.  Be   you,   or  do  you 
be. 


Pres.  To  be. 

Perf.  To  have  been. 


Pres.  Loving.  Pres.  Being  loved.  Pres.  Being. 

Perf.  Loved.  P^ff  Loved.  Perf  Been. 

Compound  Perf.   Hav-     Compound  Perf   Hav-     Compound  Perf.   Hav 
ing  loved.  ing  been  loved.  ing  been.  ^ 

536.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  retain  the  pronoun  thou,  in  the 
conjugation  of  verbs,  the  following  synopsis  is  given.  The  pupil  can  take 
it  separately,  or  be  taught  it  in  connection  with  the  other  persons  of  the 
verb,  by  substituting  thou  for  you,  in  the  foregoing  conjugation. 

passive  ?  imperative  present  active  ?  pas 
sive  7  perfect  infinitive  active  ?  passive  ? 
present  subjunctive  active  in  both  forms  ? 
passive?  perfect  infinitive?  future  ac- 
tive  passive  ? 

What  kind  of  verb  (that  is,  regular  or 
irregular,)  what  voice,  mood,  tense,  num- 
ber, and  person  is,  "  I  sing  ?"  "  We  are 
formed?"  "He  is?"  "You  are  deter- 
mined?"  "It  rains?"  "It  has  happen- 
ed?" "  The  man  was  respected  ?"  "  The 
boys  did  study  ?"  "  If  he  improve  ?"  "  Un- 
less he  repent?"  "Although  she  be  dis- 
appointed?" "  He  may  depart ?"  "De- 
part now?"  "To  love?"  "To  sing?" 
"  To  be  sung  ?"  "  To  rejoice  ?"  "  To  have 
wept  ?"  "  To  have  been  seen  ?"  "  To  have 
been  found?" 


Is  love,  as,  "  They  love,"  a  regular  or 
irregular  verb?  why?  533.  active  or  pas- 
sive ?  439.  What  mood  is  it  in  ?  why  ? 
452.  tense  ?  why  ?  482.  number  ?  person  ? 
What  does  love  agree  with  ?  Rule  VII. 

Is  are,  as,  "  They  are,"  a  regular  or 
irregular  verb?  why?  534.  passive  or 
neuter  ?  why  ?  450.  What  mood  is  it  in  ? 
why?  452.  tense?  why?  482.  number? 
person  ?  Rule  for  its  agreement  ?  VII. 

What  is  the  present  imperative  of  lovel 
present  infinitive? 

What  mood  and  tense  is,  "  Love  you  ?" 
is,  "  To  have  been  loved  ?" 

Will  you  conjugate  learn  in  the  pre- 
sent indicative  active?  passive?  perfect 
active?  perfect  passive?  present  poten- 
tial activi  ?  passive?  imperfect  active? 


Pres.  Thou  lovest. 
Imp.    Thou  lovedst. 
Perf.  Thou  hast  loved. 
Plup.  Thou  hadst  lov- 
ed. 

1  Put.  Thou    shalt    or 

wilt  love. 

2  Put.  Thou  wilt  have 

loved. 

537. 
Pres.    Thou  mayst  or 

canst.love. 
Imp.     Thou      mightst, 

couldst,  wouldst,   or 

shouldst  love. 
Perf.    Thou  mayst  or 

canst  have  loved. 
Plup.    Thou    mightst, 

couldst,   wouldst,   or 

shouldst  have  loved. 


TENSES. 
Synopsis  with  Thou, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Thou  art  loved. 
Thou  wast  loved. 
Thou  hast  been  loved. 
Thou  hadst  been  loved. 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be 

loved. 
Thou  wilt   have  been 

loved. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Thou  mayst  or  canst  be 

loved. 
Thou  mightst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst 

be  loved. 
Thou    mayst  or  canst 

have  been  loved. 
Thou  mightst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst 

have  been  loved. 


77 


Thou  art. 
Thou  wast. 
Thou  hast  been. 
Thou  hadst  been. 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be. 

Thou  wilt  have  been. 


Thou    mayst  or  canst 

be. 
Thou  mightst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst 

be. 
Thou    mayst  or  canst 

have  been. 
Thou  mightst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst 

have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


538. 
Pres.    If  thou  lovest. 
Imp.    If  thou  lovedst. 

539. 

Pres.   If  thou  love. 
Imp.     If  thou  loved. 

540. 

Perf.  If  thou  hast  loved- 
Plup.  If  thou  hadst  lov- 

1  Put.  If  thou  shalt  or 

wilt  love. 

2  Put.  If  thou  shalt  have 

loved. 


Common  Form. 
If  thou  art  loved. 
If  thou  wast  loved. 

Subjunctive  Form. 
If  thou  be  loved. 
If  thou  wert  loved. 

Common  Form. 

If  thou  hast  been  loved. 

If  thou  hadst  been  lov- 
ed. 

If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be 
loved. 

If  thou  shalt  have  been 
loved. 


If  thou  art. 
If  thou  wast. 

If  thou  be. 
If  thou  wert. 

If  thou  hast  been. 
If  thou  hadst  been. 

If  thou    shalt    or    wilt 

be. 
If  thou  shalt  have  been. 


Interrogative  Form. 
INDICATIVE  PRESENT. 

Singular. 
1.  Ami? 


541. 

Singular,  Singular. 

1.  Do  I  love  ?  1.  Am  I  loved  ? 

2.  Do  you  love  ?  2.  Are  you  loved  ?  2.  Are  you  ? 

3.  Does  he  love  ?  3.  Is  he  loved  ?  3.  Is  he  ? 

Plural.  Plural.  Plural. 

1.  Do  we  love  ?  1.  Are  we  loved  ?  1.  Are  we  ? 

2.  Do  you  love?  2.  Are  you  loved?  2.  Are  you? 

3.  Do  they  love  ?  3.  Are  they  loved  ?  3.  Are  they  ? 

542.  You  will  find,  on  examination  of  the  foregoing  conjugation,  that  the 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  in  every  respect  similar  to  the  corresponding  ones 
of  the  indicative,  except  the  following,  namely,  the  present  and  imperfect 


Will  you  give  the  synopsis  of  love  join- 
ed  with  thou  through  the  indicative  ac- 
tive ?  passive  ?  Neuter  verb  to  be  ? 

Will  you  name  the  synopsis  of  learn  in 
the  first  person  in  the  active  voice, 
through  each  mood  and  tense  ?  Will  you 
repeat  the  two  tenses  of  the  infinitive 
and  the  three  participles?  Synopsis  of 
7* 


honor  in  like  manner  througli  the  pas 
sive  ?  also  the  synopsis  of  the  verb  to  be  ? 
Give  the  synopsis  of  rfe^ire  in  the  active, 
like  love;  in  the  passive  ;  verb  to  be;  first 
person  plural  active  ;  passive  ;  to  ftc; third 
person  active;  passive;  to  be. 

What  mood  does  the  suhjunctive  re« 
semble  in  its  tenses  ?  542. 


78  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

of  the  verb  to  he  ;  the  present  and  imperfect  of  the  passive  ;  the  present  and 
the  second  future  active.  The  last,  however,  corresponds  in  termination, 
but  not  in  formation.  Among  the  exceptions  should  be  reckoned  the  use  of 
the  conjunction  if.  There  are  instances,  however,  of  the  subjunctive  form, 
when  no  conjunction  is  expressed,  but  in  all  such  cases  it  is  plainly  under- 
stood ;  as,  "  Were  I  to  go,  he  would  not  follow;"  "  Had  he  known  me, 
he  would  have  treated  me  differently  ;"  that  is,  "  If  I  were  to  go,"  and,  "  If 
he  had  known."     Examples  of  this  description  are  conjugated  as  follows : 

SUBJUNCTIVE  FORM. 

543.  IMPERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Were  I.  1.  Were  we. 

2.  Were  you.  2.  Were  you. 

3.  Were  he.  3.  Were  they. 

PLUPERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

>.  Had  I  loved.  1.  Had  we  loved. 

2.  Had  you  loved.  2.  Had  you  loved. 

3.  Had  he  loved.  3.  Had  they  loved. 

544.  The  second  person  singular  of  all  verbs*  formerly  (1.)  ended  in  st , 
ts,  "  Thou  hast,"  "  Thou  wast,"  &c.  This  form  is  still  retained  by  that 
respectable  class  of  persons  denominated  C2.)  Friends,  and  in  the  Sacred  (3.) 
Scriptures.  (3.) 

545.  Eth,  for  the  termination  of  the  third  person  singular,  obtained  (4.^ 
very  generally  till  within  a  recent  (5.)  period,  especially  on  grave  (6.)  and 
didactic  (7.)  subjects  ;  as,  "  He  that  hat?i  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear ;"  **  Sim 
pie  multiplication  teacheth  to  repeat,"  &c.     But  the  custom  of  the  present 
day  is  decidedly  (8.)  against  the  usage.  (9.) 

546.  The  Scriptures  abound  (10.)  with  instances  of  the  use  of  the  pro- 
noun ye  for  you  ;  as,  "  Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth  ;"  but  it  is  scarcely  to 
be  met  with  in  any  standard  works  of  modern  date. 

547.  The  following  conjugation  accords  with  the  ancient  usage  of  the  verb, 

INDICATIVE  PRESENT. 

Singular.  Singular.  Si7igular. 

1.  I  love.  1.  I  am  loved.  1.  I  am. 

2.  Thou  lovest.  2.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  Thou  art. 

3.  He  loveth  or  loves.  3.  He  is  loved.  3.  He  is. 

What  exceptions?  542.  By  whom  is  this  termination  still  re* 

How  does  the  second  future  differ?  542.  tained?  544.    In  what  writings  ?  544. 
Will  you  explain  the  difference  ?  542.  Meaning  of  Sacred  Scriptures?  544. 

What  is  the  sign  of  the  subjunctive         What  form  of  the  third  person  singu. 

mood  ?  510.  Is  it  always  expressed  ?  542.  lar  obtained  till  recently  ?  545.    Give  an 

Give  an  example.  542.    Will  you  supply  example.  545. 

the  conjunction  ?  Meaning  of  oftfatnerf?  545.    Of  receyit 

Will  you  conjugate  the  verb  to  be  in  545. 

the  subjunctive  mood,  imperfect  tense,         On  what  subjects  was  the  termination 

without  its  usual  sign?    In  like  manner  eth  used  in  writing?  545. 

conjugate  love  in  the  pluperfect.  Meaning  of  grave?  of  didactic?  545. 

Will  you  conjugate  love  in  the  present         In  what  writings  do  we  find  ye  used 

active,    interrogative    form?     passive?  for  you?  546. 

neuter  verb  to  bi?  Is  it  common  in  modern  works?  54G. 

In  what  voice,  mood,  tense,  number         Will  you  conjugate  love  in  the  present 

and  person  is,  "  Do  I  study  ?"  "  Did  she  active,  according  to  the  ancient  usage  ? 

study  ?"  "  Were  they  dismissed?"  "  Are  547.  passive  ?  neuter  verb  to  be? 

we  ?"  In  what  number  and  person  is,  "  He 

In  what  did  the  second  person  singular  hath?"    "He  hates?"    "  Thou  lovest  ?" 

of  all  verbs  formerly  end  ?  544.    Give  an  "Thou   hast?"    "He  learneth?"    "Ye 

example.  544.  learn  ?"  "  He  rejoiceth?"  "Thou  art  re- 
Meaning  of /orwicWy?  544.  joiced?"  "Thou  art?"  "He  weepeth?" 

*  Exceptinsj  art. 

n.;  Sfinietiinea^o.  (2.)  Called.         (3.)  The  Bib!e.         (4.)  Prevailed.         (5.)  Late.         (6.)  Seriou» 

•J.)  Abounding  in  precepts  or  instructive.         (8.)  Positively.         (9.)  Use.         (10.}  Have  many. 


VERBS,  79 

Plural.  Plural.  Plural. 

1.  We  love.  1,  We  are  loved.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Ye  or  you  love.  2.  Ye  or  you  are  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  are. 

3.  They  love.  3.  They  are  loved.  3.  They  are. 

548.  0:5°"  For  a  further  illustration  of  these  obsolete  conjugations,  the 
learner  is  referred  to  those  treatises  on  grammar  in  our  schools,  which  pro- 
fess to  furnish  him  with  a  sure  and  infallible  guide  to  the  true  and  proper 
use  of  the  English  language. 

Ruiii:  VI. 

TTie  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  number   and 
'person, 

RTJI.ZS   VIZ. 

i  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in  number  and 
person, 

RUIiZS  VIII. 

Active-transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case, 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  William  loas  admired  for  his  prudence^ 

549.  William  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 

NUMBER,  MASCULINE    GENDER,  and  in  the  NOMINATIVE  CASE  tO  WUS  ad' 

mired,  agreeably  to  Rule  VI. 

Was  admired  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  from  the  verb  to  admire 
— •"  Pres.  admire;  Imp.  admired;  Perf.  part,  admired.  1.  I  was  ad- 
mired; 2.  You  were  admired;  3.  He  or  William  was  admired" — 
made  in  the  indicative  mood,  imperfect  tense,  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  and  agrees  with  William,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

For  is  a  preposition. 

His  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, masculine  gender,  and  agrees  with  William,  according  to 
Rule  V.  —  ^^ Nom.  he;  Poss.  his" — made  in  the  possessive  case, 
and  governed  by  prudence,  by  Rule  I. 

Prudence  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
bep.,  neuter  gender,  objective  case,  and  governed  by /or,  by  Hule  X. 

EXERCISES   IN    PARSING   CONTINUED. 

"  John  was  applauded  for  his  elo-  "  The   girl   was  ridiculed   by   Iier 

quence."  companions." 

"  The  king  was  crowned  at  West-  "  Susan  was  respected  for  her  virtu- 
minster  Abbey."  ous  conduct." 

"Thomas  has  been  esteemed."  "James  will    be   rewarded   by  his 

"  The  business  will  be  regulated."  instructer." 

"Addition  teaclieth?"    "He  that  hath  was  admiredf    549.  /or?  549.  his?  5i9. 

ears?"     "He    that    sinneth?"     "Thou  prudence?  549. 

lovedst?"      "Thou     rnightst,     conldst,  What  is   a  passive  verb?  444.    How 

wouldst,  or  shouldsl  have  lamented  ?"  formed  ?  510.    Why  is  admired  regular  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of  533. 

the  verb?  rule  for  the  nominative  ?  rule  Why  is  for  a  preposition?  24G.    Why 

by  wjaich  verbs  gov«rn  the  objective  case?  is  //if  a  pronoun  ? 

"  William  was  admired  for  his  pru-  Will  you  now  parse  the  rcmainin?j  ex- 

dence."    Will  you  parse  William?  549.  ercises^ 


eo  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2. 

"  We  may  be  esteemed."  "  Justice  may  have  been  stayed." 

*'  He  might  have  been  promoted."         "  The  task  must  be  performed." 
"  William    would    have    been    de-     "  We  should  not  (1.)  be  easily  (1.) 
throned."  disheartened  in  a  good  cause." 

"7/*  7ie  be  learned,^^ 

550.  ijr  is  a  COPULATIVE  conjunction. 

Be  learned  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  from  the  verb  to  learn 
— "  Pres.  learn ;  Imper.  learned ;  Perf.  part,  learned.  1.  If  I  be 
learned ;  2.  If  you  be  learned ;  3.  If  he  be  learned" —  made  in  the 
subjunctive  mood,  subjunctive  form,  present  tense,  third  per- 
son, SINGULAR  NUMBER,  and  agrecs  with  he^  according  to  Rule  VII. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

"  If  John  be  rewarded."  "  Although  you  will  be  disappoint- 

"  If  I  am  noticed."  ed." 

"  Unless  he  be  punished."  "  If  the  man  had  been  elected." 

"  Although  they  are  respected."  "  Except  he  repent." 

"  Columbus  discovered  America."  "  Susan  assisted  the  little  girl." 

"  America  was   discovered   by  Co-  "  The   little  girl   was   assisted   by 

lumbus."  Susan." 

"  John  wounded  his  brother."  "  Pain  follows  pleasure." 

"John's   brother  was  wounded  by  "Pleasure  is  followed  by  pain."* 
,       him."                                          ^  ^ 

2. 

"  An  obedient  son  is  deservedly  re-     "  Unless  great  labor  had  been  be- 

spected  by  his  friends."  stowed   on  William,  he  would 

"An    idle    boy    will     be    punish-  have  disappointed  the  expecta- 

ed."  tions  of  his  parents." 

"Without    j^nowledge,   a    man    is     "He   will   not   (I.)   mind   without 

commonly  (1.)  despised."  corporal  punishment." 

3. 
"The  boy  who  visited  me  in  Sep-     "They  that   seek   knowledge   will 

tember,  died  in  the  city  of  Bos-  find  it." 

ton."  "That  lion   v;hich   was    exhibited 

"  The  man  whom  I  found  perished  in  this  town  has  been  killed  by 

in  a  storm  of  snow."  his  keeper." 

4. 
"  I  found  (5.)  John  and  William  (3.)     "  I  have  assisted  him  and  his  sister 

in  the  garden  with  their  father  in   many  difficulties,  to  no  (4.) 

and  mother.  (3.)  purpose." 


XLVI.    OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

551.  Irregular  verbs  are  those  which  do  not  form  their  im- 
perfect tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  to  the  present 
tense  ed,  or  d  only  when  the  verb  ends  in  e  ;  as, 

"  If  he  be  learned."  Will  you  parse  if?         Why  in  the  subjunctive  form  ?  4C3. 
550.  be  learned?  550.    Why  in  the  sub-         Will  you  parse  the  remaining  exercises 
junctive  mood?  456.  in  these  lessons? 

(1.)  Adverb.         (2.)  Irregular  verb.        (Q.)  For  tVUliam,  and  mother  apply  Rule  XI.        (4,)  Adjective. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


81 


Pres,  tense. 

Imperf. 

tense. 

Perf,  Participle, 

Go, 

Went, 

Gone, 

Begin, 

Began, 

Begun. 

Z.ZST 

OF    XRRZSGt7I.AR    VERBS. 

Those  marked  r  admit  likewise 

a  regular  form 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Abide, 

abode, 

abode. 

Hang, 

hung,  r. 

hung.  r. 

Am, 

was. 

been. 

Hear, 

h^'^ 

heard. 

Arise, 

arose, 

arisen. 

Hew, 

hewn.  r. 

Awake, 

^  awoke,  r. 

awaked. 

Hide, 

hid,    ' 

hidden,  hid. 

Bear,   to 
forth, 

^•"^     bare, 
carry,      bore. 

born. 

Hit, 
Hold, 

hit, 
held. 

hit 
held. 

Bear,  to 

borne. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Beat, 

beat. 

beaten,  beat. 

Keep, 

kept. 

kept 

B&r% 

began. 

begun. 

Knit, 

knit,  r. 

knU.  r. 

Ijend, 

bent. 

bent. 

Know, 

knew. 

known. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r. 

Lade, 

laded. 

laden. 

Beseech, 

besought. 

besought. 

Lay,' 

laid, 

laid. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade, 

bidden,  bid. 

Lead, 

led. 

led. 

Bind, 

bound. 

bound. 

Leave, 

left. 

left 

Bite, 

bit. 

bitten,  bit. 

Lend/ 

lent. 

lent 

Bleed, 

bled. 

bled. 

Let, 

let, 

let 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Lie,  to  lie 

down,  lay. 

lain. 

Break, 

broke- 

broken. 

Load, 

loaded. 

laden,  r.     . 

Breed, 

bred. 

bred. 

Lose, 

made, 

lost. 

a; 

brought, 

brought. 

Make, 

made. 

built, 

built. 

Meet, 

met. 

met 

Burst, 

burst. 

burst. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown.  r. 

Bay,^ 

bought, 

bought. 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

Cast, 

cast. 

cast. 

Put,' 

put. 

put 

Catch, 

caught,  r. 
chid. 

caught,  r. 
chidden,  chid. 

Read, 

read, 

read. 

Cbide, 

Rend, 

rent. 

rent 

Choose, 

^  chose. 

chosen. 

Rid, 

a.       ^ 

rid. 

Cleave, 

0  stick  I              . 

Ride, 

rode,  ridden,  t 

OT  adhere,       ^ -s"-"'. 

Ring, 

rung,  rang. 

rung. 

Cleave,  to  split,    clove  or  cleft 

cleft,  cloven. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Clin^, 

clung, 

clung. 

Rive, 

rived. 

riven. 

Clothe, 

clothed, 

clad.  r. 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Come, 

came. 

come. 

Saw, 

saw, 

sawn.  r. 

Goaf, 

cost. 

cost. 

Say, 

said. 

said. 

Crow, 

crew,  r. 

crowed. 

la. 

saw. 

seen. 

Creep, 

crept. 

crept. 

Zt' 

isrf- 

Cut, 

cut. 

cut. 

Sell, 

Dare,  to  venture,  durst, 

dared. 

Send, 

sent. 

sent 

Dare,   to 

chal-   }, 

Set, 

set. 

set 

lenge, 

Shake, 

shook. 

shaken. 

DeaL 

'  dealt,  r. 

dealt  r. 

Shape, 

shaped. 

shaped,  sbapen 

Rig, 

■  i^r 

dug.  r. 

Shave, 

shaved. 

shaven,  r. 

Do, 

done. 

Shear, 

sheared, 

shorn. 

Draw, 

drew. 

drawn. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

Shine, 

shone,  r. 

shone,  r. 

Drink, 

.  drank, 

drunk. 

Show, 

showed, 

shown. 

Dwell, 

dwelt. 

dwelt,  r. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

Eat,    ' 
Fall, 

eat  or  ate. 

eaten. 

Shoot, 

shot. 

shot 

fell. 

fallen. 

Shrink, 

shrunk. 

shrunk. 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shred. 

Feel, 

felt. 

felt. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shut 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang. 

sunk. 

Find, 

found. 

found. 

Sink, 

sunk,  sank 

Flee, 

fled. 

fled. 

Sit, 

^^U     . 

sat. 

FlS, 

flung,         ^ 

flung. 

Slay, 

slew,  <• 

slain. 

Fly, 

flew. 

flown. 

Sleep, 

slept, 
slid. 

slept 

yorget. 

forgot. 

forgotten,  forgot 

Slide, 

slidden. 

Forsake, 

forsook. 

forsaken. 

Sling. 

Elung, 
slunk. 

s;£ 

Freeze, 

froze. 

frozen. 

Slink, 

Get, 

got,' 

got.* 

Slit, 

slit,  r. 

sli!,  or  slitted. 

Gild, 

gilt,  r. 

gilt.  r. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten. 

Gird, 

girt,  n 

girt.  r. 

Sow, 

sowed. 

sown.  r. 

Give, 

gave. 

given.            V 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken. 

Go, 

went. 

gone. 

Speed, 

sped. 

sped. 

Grave, 

graved. 

graven,  r. 

Spend, 

spent. 

spent 

Grind, 

ground. 

ground. 

Spill, 

spilt,  r. 

spilt,  r. 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown, 
had. 

Spin, 

spun. 

spun. 

Have, 

had. 

Spit, 

spit,  spat. 

spit,  spitten.t 

XLVI.  When  is  a  verb  called  irregu- 
lar? 551. 

Will  you  name  the  present  and  imper- 
fect tenses,  also  the  perfect  participle  of 
go  7    begin  ?  am  ?  arise  ?  awake  ?   bear  ? 


(to  carry.)  bid?  bite?  break?  choose? 
do?  drink?  eat?  forget?  have?  known  1 
lie?  (to  lie  down.)  mow?  rise?  see? 
throw  1   weave?  write? 


«  Gotten  is  nearly  obsolefe.    Its  compound,  forgotten,  is  still  in  good  use. 

t  Ridden  is  nearly  obsolete.  XSpitten  is  nearly  obsolete. 

6 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Prtaent. 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stitik, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow  or  strew, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 


Imperfect. 

Perf,  or  Pa-is.  Part. 

Prueyit. 

Imperfect. 

Perf  or  Past.  Part. 

split. 

split,  r. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

spread, 

spread. 

Teach, 

taught. 

taught. 

sprung,  sprang 

sprung. 

Tear, 

tore. 

torn. 

stood, 

siood. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

stole, 

stolen. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r. 

thriven. 

stung, 
stunk, 

stung, 
stunk. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust 

strode,  or  strid. 

stridden. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trodden. 

struck, 

struck  or  stricken. 

Wax, 

waxed. 

waxen,  r. 

strung, 

strung. 

Wear, 

wore. 

worn. 

strove. 

striven. 

Weave, 

wove. 

woven. 

strowed,  or 

>  strown,  strowed. 

Weep, 

wept. 

wept. 

strewed, 

)     strewed. 

Win,*^' 

won, 

swore, 

sworn. 

Wind, 

wound. 

.  wound. 

swet,  r. 
swelled, 

swet.  r. 
swollen,  r. 

Work, 

wrought, 

I^ztj: 

swum,  swam, 

swum. 

Wring, 

wrung. 

wrung. 

swung, 

swung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

553.  We  say,  "  I  have  seen,"  "I  had  seen,"  and  *'  I  am  seen,"  using 
the  participle  seen  instead  of  the  verb  saw  :  hence, 

Note  VI.    We  should  use  participles,  only,  after  have,  and 

had,  and  the  verb  to  be. 


EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
^^  John  has  imtten  his  copy.^^ 

554.  Has  written  is  a'b  irregular  active-transitive  verb, 
from  the  verb  to  write  — "  Pres.  write ;  Imperf.  wrote ;  ^  Perf.  part. 
written.  1.  I  have  written;  2.  You  have  written;  S.' He  or  John 
has  written" — found  in  the  indicative  mood,  perfect  tensb» 
THIRD  PERSON,  SINGULAR  NUMBER,  and  Bgrees  With  John,  Ly 
Rule  VII. 

Johnf  copy,  and  his^  are  parsed  as  before. 


EXERCISES    IN 


SYNTAX 
1. 


CONTINUED. 


"  Job  has  struck  John." 

♦*  John  has  been  struck  by  Job." 

"  The  men  caught  the  thief  in  the 

tavern." 
"  The  thief  was  caught  by  the  men 

in  the  tavern." 
"A  wise   son  will    make   a  glad 

father." 


'  The  act  was  done    >/ William." 
'James  found  hij   iittle  brother  in 

the  boat." 
'  The  instructer  makes  good  pens." 
'The  farmer   ploughs   the   ground 

in  spring." 
'  I    may   spend    my    time   in  the 

country." 


Will  you  correct,  in  accordance  with 
Note  VI.,  the  following  examples  from 
the  list  above  ? 

"  John  has  wrote." 

"  He  done  it  well." 

*'  The  sun  has  rose." 

*'  The  sun  risen  yesterday  in  a  cloud." 

"  I  see  him  yesterday." 

"  He  has  did  his  task." 

"  The  birds  have  flew  away." 

"  The  birds  flown  or  flew." 

•'  The  post  is  drove  into  the  ground." 

"  He  began  or  begun  to  write." 

*'  The  task  is  began." 

*'  I  had  went  with  him." 

"  My  brother  has  not  spoke." 

'•  The  cloth  is  wove." 

•*  The  boys  run  swiftly." 

*'  The  thief  has  stole  Inv  watch." 


"  His  copy  was  wrote  well." 
"  He  was  smote  on  his  cheek." 
"  John  was  awoke  by  the  noise." 
"  My  father  has  came," 
"  He  come  yesterday." 
"  Mary  has  chose  the  better  part." 
"  He  drunk  to  excess." 
"  The  book  was  gave  to  me." 
"  His  friends  have  forsook  him." 
"  He  was  not  forsook  by  his   child- 
ren." 

"  The  laborer  worked  for  me  forty 
days." 

"  He  was  took  and  bound." 
"  John  has  written  his  copy."     Will 
you  parse  has  writtenl 

Whv  is  has  written  an  irregular  verb? 
551.  Why  active  ?  439.  Why  transitive? 
440. 


EXERCISES.  83 

2. 

»» John  is  at  home."  "  He  abode  in  peace." 

"  Rufus  rode  into  the  country."  "  They  would  be  cruel." 

"  The  sun  will  shine."  "  We  may  have  been  negligent." 

"  The  thief  was  confined  in  jail."  "  The  boys  should  have  been  studi- 

"The  horse  ran  with    great  vio-  ous." 

lence."  "  William  was  in  town." 
3. 

"  If  he  will  assist  me,  I  shall  be  faults,  still  he  would  not  recom- 

much  (1.)  obliged  to  him."  pense  me." 

**  If  he  be  virtuous,  then  he  will  be  "  I  will  write  him,  lest  he  neglect 

happy."  my  business." 

"  If  he  is  happy,  then  I   am  con-  "  Should  I  be  disappointed,  I  shall 

tented."  despair." 

"Had  he  mentioned  that  circum-  "Unless  he  repent,  he  will  not  be 

stance,  I   should  have   avoided  pardoned." 

my  present  calamities."  "  Were  I*  in  your  place,  I  would 

"  Although  he    acknowledged    his  relieve  him." 

4. 

"  Thou  hast  benefited  me."  "  Dost  thou  hear  me  ?" 

"  Ye  make  no  pretensions."  "  Hath  he  many  advisers  ?" 

" This    doctrine    hath    no    follow-  "Ye  do  always  err." 

ers."  "  Thou  shalt  surely  die." 

"  If  thou  love  me."  "  If  thou   hadst  obeyed  me,  thou 

"  If  thou  art  more  comfortable,  I  wouldst   not  have   been  disap- 

heartily  rejoice."  pointed." 
5. 

"  If  Thomas,  who  is  at  school,  re-  imposed   was    performed   with 

turn  in  season,  I  will  visit  you."  reluctance." 

"The    boys  whom  I   admonished  "The   measure   which    he    adopts 

have  reformed."  will  succeed." 

"  The  man  whose  life  was  in  dan-  "  I  have  known   a  little  child  that 

ger  returned  in  safety."  exhibited  the  prudence  of  ma- 

"  The    task   which    the   instructer  ture  years." 


XLVII.    GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

555.  When  I  say,  **  John  begins  to  read,"  to  read  is  a  verb  in  the  infini- 
tive mood ;  and  it  follows,  as  you  perceive,  the  verb  begins  :  hence  we  say 
that  it  is  governed  by  begins. 

"He  is  beginning  to  read."  Here,  the  infinitive  follows  the  participle 
beginning  ;  it  is,  therefore,  governed  by  beginning. 

"  He  is  eager  to  learn."  Here,  the  infinitive  follows  the  adjective  eager; 
we  therefore  say  that  it  is  governed  by  eager. 

"He  has  an  opportunity  to  learn."  Here,  the  infinitive,  to  learn  ia 
governed  by  the  noun  opportunity,  because  it  follows  the  noun. 

In  like  manner  the  infinitive  may  be  governed  by  pronouns;  as,  "  There 
is  a  fine  opportunity  for  him  to  learn  :"  hence, 

XLVII.    "John  begins  to  read."    In  "He  has  an  opportunity  to  learn?" 

what  mood  is  to  readl  555.    Why  ?  479.  What  part  of  speech  governs  to  learn  in 

By  what  is  it  governed  ?  555.  Why  ?  555.  this  example  ?  .555.    Why  ?  555. 

"  He  is  beginning  to  read."    What  go-         "  opportunity  for  him  to  learn." 

verns  ftf  rcarf  in  this  case  ?  555.  What    does    the    infinitive    here     fol- 

"  He  is  eager  to  learn."  What  governs  low?    By  what,  then,  is  it  governed? 

to  learn  in  this  case  ?  555.    Why  ?  555.  555. 

(1.;  Adverb.  ~  •  See  543. 


64  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rt7IiZS    XII. 

The  infinitive  mood  may  he  governed  by  verbs,  partici- 
ples,  adjectives,  nouns,  and  pronouns. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  James  begins  to  learn,^^ 

656.  To  learn  is  a  regular  transitive  verb — ^^ Pres.  learn; 
Imperf.  learned;  Perf.  part,  learned" — made  in  the  infinitive 
MOOD,  PRESENT  TENSE,  and  govcmed  by  begins,  agreeably  to 
Rule  XII. 

James  and  begins,  are  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES   IN  SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

**  George  desires  to  learn."  "  A   knowledge    of   the    rules    of 

"He  is  eager  to  learn."  grammar  teaches  us  to  write 

"  He  has  a  desire  to  study."  correctly." 

"  It  seems  to  please  John."  "  He  should   seek  to  obtain  know- 

"  William  has  come  to  see  us."  ledge." 

"  They    are     determined    to  ex-     "  We  may  be  taught  to  write,  read, 

eel."  and  spell." 

Omission  of  to,  the  usual  Sign  of  the  Infinitive, 

"John  saw  the  man  strike  (I.)  the  "  I  heard  the  clock  strike." 

boy."  "  The  tutor  bade  him  do  it." 

"The   instructer    made    him    sub-  "  The  soldiers  dare  not  rebel." 

mit."  "  My  uncle  let  the  boys  play  in  the 
"They  need  not  proceed  in   such  garden." 

haste."  "  See  (2.)  the  blind  beggar  dance." 

Note  VII.  The  infinitive  mood  is  sometimes  governed  by 
conjunctions  or  adverbs ;  as,  "  The  summit  of  a  mountain  so 
high  as  to  be  invisible." 

EXAMPLES. 
"  They  are  about  (3.)  to  depart."  "  He  desired  no  more  (4.)  than  (5.) 

"  He  is  wise  enough  (3.)  to  study."  to  know  his  duty." 


XLVIII. 

557.  We  have  before  seen,  that  participles  partake  of  the  nature  of  two 
parts  of  speech,  namely,  verbs  and  adjectives.  One  point  of  resemblance 
which  participles  have  to  adjectives,  is  in  referring  to  some  noun  in  the  sen- 
tence in  which  they  are  used  ;  as,  *'  The  sun  is  setting :"  here,  the  partici- 
ple setting  is  said  to  refer  to  the  noun  sun  :  hence, 

What,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  a  rule  "  They  are  about  to  depart."    By  what 

for  the  government  of  the  infinitive?  XII.  is  the  infinitive  here  governed  ?  Wliat  ia 

"John    begins    to  learn."    Will  you  the  note  for  this.?  VII. 

parse  to  learn?  James 7  begins?  556.  XLVIII.  What  is  a  participle?  498. 
Is  to  ever  omitted  ?  480.  "  The  sun  ia  setting."  What  is  set- 
Will  you  now  parse  the  exercises  in  tirig?  557.    To  what,  then,  does  setting 

the  lessons  which  follow  ?  refer  ?  557.    Rule  ?  XIII. 

What  is  the  infinitive  mood  used  for  ?  Will    you     now    parse     setting    in 

m ^ full? ^ 

(1.)  strike  is  governed  b^  Rule  XII. 

(2.)  See  is  in  the  imperative,  agrreeing  with  thcu  or  you,  understood,  by  Rule  VII. 

(3.)  Adverb,  (4.)  Noun.  (5.)  Coujunction. 


PARTICIPLES.  85 

RVX.!:   XZIZ. 

Participles  refer  to  nouns, 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  The  wind  is  rising,''^ 

558.  Rising  is  a  present  active  participle,  from  the  irregular 
verb  to  rise  —  "  Pres.  rise ;  Imp.  rose ;  Perf,  part,  risen" —  and  it 
refers  to  wind,  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

EXERCISESIIf    syntax:    CONTINUED. 

1.   ■'     " 
"  The  moon  is  setting."  "  Mary  was  playing." 

"  The  sun  is  rising."  "  I  have  been  writing." 

"  The  trees  are  growing."  "  I  found  him  crying." 

"John  was  dancing."  "  I  left  him  rejoicing." 

PARTICIPIAL  ADJECTIVES. 
"  The  rising  sun  cheers  W5." 

559.  Rising  is  a  participial  adjective,  from  the  verb  to  rise  — 
**  Pres.  rise ;  Imp.  rose ;  Perf.  part,  risen" —  and  belongs  to  sim^  by 
Rule  IV. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
2. 

**  The  setting   sun   reminds  us  of     "  We  view  with  pleasure  the  twink- 

declining  years."  ling  stars." 

"The  roaring  winds  alarm  us."  "The  roaring  cataract  strikes   us 

"The      rippling      stream    pleases  with  awe." 

us."  ^  "  The  laboring   man  should  not  be 

••  The  singing-master  visited  me."  defrauded." 

3. 
"Having    dined,    I    returned    to     "Having    slept,  he  recovered    his 

school."  strength." 

"  Having  fought  bravely,  they  were     "  Having  retired   to  rest,  he  was 

at  last  (I.)  overcome."  seized  with  violent  pain." 

"John,   having  exercised  too  vio-     "The  thief,   having    escaped,  was 

lently,  fainted."  never   afterwards   seen  in  that 

region." 
4. 
"  William  returned,  mortified  at  his     "  A  child  left  to  follow  his  own  in- 

loss."  clinations    is    most  commonly 

"  The  stream,  swollen  by  the  rains,  ruined." 

overflowed  its  banks."  "  Admired   and   applauded,,  he  be- 

"  The  man  accustomed  to  his  glass  came  vain." 

seldom  reforms." 

Will  you  parse  the  next  lesson  ?  What  kind  of  a  participle  is,  "  Having 
Win  you  parse  rising^  in  the  sentence,  dined  ?"  504.  Why  ?  504. 
"The  rising  sun?"  559.  Why  is  it  call-  Who  dined,  in  the  phrase,  "Having 
ed  a  participial  adjective  ?  ^ns.  Because  dined,  I  returned  to  school  ?" 
it  describes,  like  an  adjective,  and  im-  To  what,  then,  does  having  dined  re- 
plies action,  like  a  participle.  fer?  Rule  XHI.  Will  you  now  parse  the 
Will  you  now  parse  the  next  lesson?  remaining  lessons? 

(1.)  At  last  is  an  adverbial  phrase. 


86  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

5. 

"  A    dissipated     son     grieves     his  youth  into  his  own  house,  and 

parents."  rendered  to  him  deserved  assis- 

"  We  must  not  neglect  any  known  tance." 

duty."  "  William  befriended  the   deserted 

"My    father    took    the     forsaken  man." 

6. 

**  The  men,  being  fatigued  by  labor,  feet,   was    severely   and  justly 

sought  rest  in  sleep."  punished." 

"  William,  being  dismissed  from  col-  "  The   tree,  having   been   weighed 

lege,  retired  to  the  country."  down  for  a  long  time  by  abun- 

"  Thomas,   after    having  been    re-  dance  of  fruit,  at  last  (1.)  fell  to 

peatedly  admonished  to  no  ef-  the  ground." 

RUZiz:  xzv. 

Active  participles,  from  active-transitive  verbs,  gov&im  the 
objective  case. 

"  James  is  beating  Johny 

560.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
NUMBER,  MASCULINE  GENDER,  OBJECTIVE  CASE,  and  govemcd  by  heat- 
ing, by  Rule  XIV. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
1. 

"  John  is  striking  William."  immediately   set   off   for   Bos- 

"  Susan  is  studying  her  lesson."  ton." 

"  Mary  has  been  repeating  her  les-  "  I  spied  the  cat  watching  a 
son  to  her  mother."  mouse." 

"The  teamster,  seeing  the  stage  "Having  given  directions  to  his 
upsetting,   ran    and    prevented  servants,    he    left    his    family 

it."  and  took  the   stage  for  Wash- 

"  Having  obtained  my  request,  I  ington." 

"  He  delights  in  Jlghting,^^ 

561.  Fighting  is  a  participial  noun,  in  the  objective  case,  and 
governed  by  the  preposition  in,  according  to  Rule  X. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED, 
1. 

"  Job    was     exhausted    by    wrest-     "  Job  practises  fencing  daily." 

ling."  "The   instructer   teaches   reading, 

"Mary   acquired    a    liveHhood   by  writing,   and   spelling,   in    his 

sewing."  school." 

"  Walter  excels  in  writing."  "  Whispering      is      forbidden     in 

"  Fishing  delights  me."  school." 

"Beating  John."  Will  you  parse  ing?  ,%}.  Why  is  fighting  caUed  a  p&r- 
Johnl  560.    Beating?  558.  ticipial  noun?  Ans.   Because  it  implies 

^N\\\  you  parse  the  remaining  exercises  f."'^°"' l;'!^.  I  P^'n'^'P^^'  ^"'^  *'^'*  ^^'''' 
in  thp  iP«s«nn  nhnvo  1  the  sense  of  a  noun, 

m  the  lesson  above  ?  ^. „  ^^^  p^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  jj^e  exercises 

"  In  fighting."    Will  you  parse  fight-     in  this  lesson  ? 

(1.)  M  Uut  is  an  adverbial  phrase. 


EXERCISES.  8X 

2. 
562.  "  You  will  much  oblige  me  by  sending  those  books.^^ 
Sending  is  a  participial  noun,   in  the  objective  case,  and 
governed  by  the  preposition  by,  according  to  Rule  X. 

Books  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  number, 
NEUTER  GENDER,  OBJECTIVE  CASE,  and  govomed  by  the  active  par- 
ticiple sending,  according  to  Rule  XIV. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

"James  derives  pleasure  from  read-  "  Mary's   reading  has  been  useful 

ing  useful  books."  in  improving  her  taste  in  com- 

"John  is  above  doing  a  mean  ac-  position." 

lion."  "  I    am    discouraged   from   under- 

"  Parents    are    pleased    at    seeing  taking  this  study." 

the    progress    of    their    chil-  "  A  good  instructer  takes  no  delight 

dren."  in  punishing." 

The  present  participle,  when  used  as  a  noun,  often  has  the  definite  article 
the  before  it,  and  the  preposition  o/ after  it ;  as,  **  By  the  observing  of  truth, 
you  will  command  respect."  With  equal  propriety,  however,  it  maybe 
said,  "By  observing  truth,"  &c.,  omitting  both  the  article  and  the  pre- 
position. If  we  use  the  article  without  the  preposition,  or  the  preposition 
without  the  article,  the  expression  will  appear  awkward :  hence. 

Note  VIII.  The  definite  article  the  should  be  used  before, 
and  the  preposition  of  afler,  participial  nouns,  or  they  should 
both  be  omitted. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"By  the  observing  these  rules,  he  "In    the    regarding  his   interests, 
will  avoid  mistakes."  he    neglected    the    public    af- 

"He  prepared  them  for  the  event  fairs." 

by  the  sending  to  them  proper  "  He  was  sent  to  prepare  the  way 
information."  by  preaching  of  repentance." 

"  In  writing  of  his  letter,  he  made  "  Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven  (1.) 
some  mistakes."  is  required  of  Christians." 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

*♦  William  calls  George."  "  John   will    be   punished    for  his 
"John*s  father  will  reward  his  in-  insolence." 

dustry.  ^  »*  We  may  improve  under  our  in- 

"  George's  father's  carnage  passed  structer,  if  we  choose." 

the  tavern." 

"  If  William  return,  he  will  be  dis-  "  He  who  would   excel    in  learn- 

appointed."  ^"ff»  ™ust  be  attentive  to  his 

•*  John  has  beaten  his  little  brother  books." 

most  shamefully,"  "  She  begins  to  improve." 

"  By  sending  those  books."  Will  you  Instead  of  saying,  "  By  the  observing 
parse  sending?  5(32.  books?  562.  these  rules,"  what  should  I  say?  Why? 

Will  you  parse  the  remaining  exercises     Note  VIII. 

How  may  participles  in  ing  be  distin-  Will  you  parse  the  promiscuous  exer- 
guished  from  other  parts  of  speech  of  the  cises  in  Syntax  ?  Next  take  those  to  be 
iiame  termination  ?  560.  written. 

«1.)  Seven  is  a  numeral  atdjedive,  belonging  to  days,  understood,  bjr  Note  r. 


88     ,  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

563.  Will  you  compose  a  sentence,  containing  an  active-transitive  verb  ? 
One,  containing-  a  neuter  verb  ?  One,  containing  a  passive  verb  ?  One, 
expressing  the  same  sense  as  the  last  in  an  active  form  ?  Will  you  com- 
pose a  sentence  having  a  verb  in  the  potential  mood  ?  One,  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood  ?  One,  in  the  imperative  mood  ?  One,  in  the  infinitive 
mood  ?  One,  having  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree  ?  One,  hav- 
ing the  article  an  correctly  used  before  a  vowel  ?  One,  having  an  adjec- 
tive in  the  positive  degree  that  has  in  itself  a  superlative  signification  ? 
One,  containing  the  relative  whose  ?  One,  containing  wJdch  ?  One,  with 
what  used  as  a  compound  pronoun  ?  One,  having  who  used  as  an  inter- 
rogative pronoun  ?  One,  having  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  common 
form  ? 

Will  you  construct  one  or  more  sentences,  which  will  make  sense  with 
the  word  truth  contained  in  them?  One,  with  the  word  wisdom  contain- 
ed in  it  ?  One,  with  the  word  knowledge  1  One,  with  the  word  learn' 
ing  ?     One,  with  the  word  science  7 

Will  you  construct  a  sentence  about  prudence  ?  One  about  history  ? 
One  or  more  on  the  following  subjects,  namely,  geography,  gardenings 
farms,  orchards  ? 

Will  you  fill  up  the  following  phrases  with  suitable  words   to   make 

sense,   namely,    "  Industry health  ?"      "  By  —  we   acquire ?" 

"  In  youth  characters ?"      "  Arithmetic business  ?'* 

"Washington live hearts  of  his ?" 


XLIX.    OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

564.  The  verbs  have,  he,  will  and  do,  when  they  are  unconnected  with  a 
principal  verb,  expressed  or  understood,  are  not  auxiliaries,  but  principal 
verbs ;  as,  "  We  have  enough ;"  '*  I  am  grateful ;"  "  He  wills  it  to  be  so ;" 
**  They  do  as  they  please."  In  this  view,  they  also  have  their  auxiliaries ; 
as,  "I  shall  have  enough  ;"   "I  will  be  grateful,"  &c. 

565.  The  peculiar  force  of  the  several  auxiliaries  will  appear  from  the 
following  account  of  them. 

666.  Do  and  did  mark  the  action  itself,  or  the  time  of  it,  with  greater 
energy  and  positiveness  ;  as,  ^'I  do  speak  truth ;"  "I  did  respect  him  ;" 
*'  Here  am  I,  for  thou  didst  call  me."  They  are  of  great  use  in  negative 
(1.)  sentences  ;  as,  **  I  do  not  fear ;"  "I  did  not  write."  They  are  almost 
universally  employed  in  asking  questions;  as,  " Doss  he  learn ?"  ''Did 
he  not  write?"  They  sometimes  also  supply  (2.)  the  place  of  another 
verb,  and  make  the  repetition  of  it,  in  the  same  or  a  subsequent  sentence, 
annecessary  ;  as,  **  You  attend  not  to  j^our  studies  as  he  does  ;"  (i.  e.  "as 
be  attends,"  &c.)  *'I  shall  come,  if  I  can;  but  if  I  do  not,  please  to 
excuse  me  ;"  (i.  e.  **  if  I  come  not.") 

567.  3Iay  and  might  express  the  possibiUty  or  liberty  of  doing  a  thing ; 
can  and  could,  the  power  ;  as,  "  It  may  rain  ;"  "I  may  write  or  read ;" 
"  He  might  have  improved  more  than  he  has ;"  "  IJe  can  write  much  bet- 
ter than  he  could  last  year." 

XLIX.  Which  are  the  auxiliary  verbs?  What  effect  have  do  and  did  in  sen- 

512.  tencea  ?  566.    Give  an  example.  566. 

What  is  an  auxiliary  verb  ?  511.  Will  you  give  an  example  in  which  the 

What  a  principal  one?*  repetition  of  the  principal  verb  is  un- 

When  are  have,  be,  will,  and  do  princi-  necessary  7  566. 

pal   verbs?   564.    Give  an  example  of  What    do    may   and   might  express? 

each.  564.  567. 


(1.)  Denying.  (2.)  To  fill  up.  *  See  question  to  197. 


AUXILIARY    VERBS.  89 

568.  Must  is  sometimes  called  in  for  a  helper,  and  denotes  necessity ;  as, 
**  We  must  speak  the  truth,  whenever  we  do  speak,  and  we  must  not  pre- 
varicate." (1.) 

569.  Will,  in  the  first  person  singular  and  plural,  intimates  (2.)  resolution 
and  promising ;  in  the  second  and  third  person,  it  only  foretells;  as,  "I 
will  reward  the  good,  and  will  punish -the  wicked  ;"  "  We  will  remember 
benefits,  and  be  grateful ;"  "  I'hou  wilt,  or  he  will,  repent  of  that  folly  ;" 
**  You,  or  they,  will  have  a  pleasant  walk." 

570.  Shall,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  first  person,  simply  foretells ;  in  the 
second  and  third  persons,  it  promises,  commands,  or  threatens;  as,  "I 
shall  go  abroad  ;"  "  We  shall  dine  at  home  ;"  "  Thou  shalt,  or  you  shall, 
inherit  the  land ;"  *'  Ye  shall  do  justice,  and  love  mercy  ;"  "  They  shall 
account  for  their  misconduct."  1'he  following  passage  is  not  translated  (3.) 
according  to  the  distinct  and  proper  meanings  of  the  words  shall  and  will  : 
"  Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life  ;  and 
I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  for  ever."  It  ought  to  be,  "  wi/Z 
follow  me,"  and,  "  I  shall  dwell." — The  foreigner  who,  as  it  is  said,  fell 
into  the  Thames,  and  cried  out,  '^  I  will  be  drowned!  nobody  sAaZZ  help 
me  !"  made  a  sad  misapplication  of  these  auxiliaries. 

571.  These  observations  respecting  the  import  (4.)  of  the  verbs  will  and 
shall,  must  be  understood  of  explicative  sentences ;  for  when  the  sentence 
is  interrogative,  just  the  reverse,  (5.)  for  the  most  part,  takes  place :  thus, 
"  I  shall  go,"  "  You  will  go,"  express  event  (6.)  only  ;  but,  *'  JVill  you 
go  ?"  imports  intention ;  and,  "  Shalt  I  go  ?"  refers  to  the  will  of  another. 
But,  **  He  shall  go,"  and,  "  Shall  he  g(5  ?"  both  imply  will ;  expressing  or 
referring  to  a  command. 

572.  When  the  verb  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  meaning  of  these 
auxiliaries  Hkewise  undergoes  (7.)  some  alteration ;  as  the  learners  will 
readily  perceive  by  a  few  examples :  "  He  shall  proceed  ;"  "  If  he  s^aZZ  pro- 
ceed ;"  "  You  shall  consent ;"  *'  If  you  shall  consent."  These  auxiharies 
are  sometimes  interchanged  (8.)  in  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods ; 
to  convey  the  same  meaning  of  the  auxihary  ;  as,  *'  He  will  not  return ;" 
"  If  he  shall  not  return  ;"  "He  shall  not  return  ;"  "  If  he  will  not  return." 

573.  Would  primarily  (9.)  denotes  inclination  of  will ;  and  should,  obliga- 
tion ;  but  they  both  vary  their  import,  and  are  often  used  to  express  simple 
event. 

574.  Do  and  have  are  sometimes  used  as  principal  verbs,  according  to  the 
following 

SiriTOFSZS. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.    I  do.  I  have. 

Imp.      I  did.  I  had. 

Perf.    I  have  done.  I  have  had. 

Plup.    1  had  done.  I  had  had. 

1  Fut.  I  shall  or  will  do.  I  shall  or  will  have. 

2  Fut.  I  shall  have  done.  I  shall  have  had. 

What  is  the  use  of  must  ?  568.  all  the  days  of  my  life  ;  and  I  will  dwell 

What  does  will  intimate  in  the  first  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  for  ever."  570. 

person  sitffeular?  plural?  569.    Give  an  In  what  consists  the  mistake  in  the 

example.  569.    In  the  second  and  third  expression   which    the    foreigner    made 

persons?  569.    Give  an  example.  569.  whon  he  fell  into  the  Thames?  570. 

What  does  shall  intimate  in  the  first  What  do  s/mW  and  wiZZ  denote  in  inter- 
person?  570.    Give  an  example.  570.  ropative  sentences;  as,  "Shall  I  go?" 

In  what  particular  is  the  translation  of  "  Will  you  go  ?"  571. 

the  following  passage  incorrect  ?  "  Sure-  What  do  tcould  and  should  primarily 

ly  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  denote  ?  573. 

(1.)  To  shun  the  truth.  (2.)  Shows.  (3.)  Expressed.  (4.)  Menninj.  (S.)  Contrary. 

(6.)  What  happens.  (7.)  Suffers.  (8.)  To  exchange  oue  for  the  other.  (9.)  la  the  first  place. 

8* 


90  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

575.  POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Pres.   I  may  or  can  do.  I  may  or  can  have. 

Imp.    I    might,    could,  would,  or     I  might,   could,   would,   or  should 

should  do.  have. 

Perf.   I  may  or  can  have  done.  I  may  or  can  have  had. 

Plup.  I    might,    could,  would,  or     I  might,   could,   would,   or  should 

should  have  done.  have  had. 

576.  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Pres.  \.  If  I  do.  If  I  have,  &c. 

576—1.  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.   Do  you,  or  Do  you  do.  Have  you,  or  Do  you  have. 

577.  INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Pres.   To  do.  To  have. 
Perf.   To  have  done.  To  have  had. 

578.  PARTICIPLES. 
Pres.   Doing.  Having. 
Perf.   Done.  Had. 
Comp.  perf.  Havmg  done.                     Having  had. 


L.    OF  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

579.  Defective  verbs  are  those  which  are  used  only  in  some 
of  the  moods  and  tenses. 

580.  The  following  are  the  principal  ones : 

Pres.  Tense.  Imp.  Tense.  Perf.  Participle. 

May,  Might,  (Wanting.) 

Can,  Could,  

Will,  Would,  

'  Shall,  Should,  

Must,  Must,  . 

Ought  Ought,  ■ 

Quoth, 

581.  Of  these,  ought  and  must,  you  perceive,  are  not  varied. 

582.  Ought  and  quoth  are  always  used  as  principal  verbs.  Ought  is  the 
same  in  the  imperfect  tense  as  in  the  present,  and  is  always  followed  by  an 
infinitive  ;  as,  **  He  ought  to  study  ;"  "He  ought  to  have  read."  In  this 
last  example,  ou^ht  is  in  the  imperfect ;  and  in  the  first,  it  is  in  the  present. 
This  we  determme  by  the  infinitive,  which  follows  the  verb,  thus  :  when 
the  present  infinitive  follows  ou^ht,  ought  is  in  the  present  tense  ;  but  when 
the  perfect  infinitive  follows  it,  it  is  in  the  imperfect  tense. 

583.  In  English,  verbs  are  often  used  both  in  a  transitive  and  intransitive, 
or  neuter  signification.  Thus,  to  flatten,  when  it  signifies  to  make  even  or 
level,  is  an  active-transitive  verb  ;  but  when  it  signifies  to  grow  dull  or  in- 
sipid, it  is  an  intransitive  verb. 

Will  you  repeat  the  synopsis  of  do  Which  are  not  varied  ?  581. 

through  all  the  moods  ?  of  have  ?  How  are  ought  and  quoth  always  used  ? 

Will  you  conjugate  do  in  the  present  582. 

tense  ?  have  in  the  perfect  tense  ?  How  can  you  tell  when  ought  is  in  the 

What  is  the  perfect  participle  of  do?  present  tense  ?  582. 

of  have?  the  compound  perfect  of  do  ?  of  When  is  it  in  the  imperfect  tense  ?  582. 

Iiave?  Give  an  exafnplo  of  each  tense.  582. 

li.    What  are  defective  verbs  ?  579.  When  is  to  flatten  transitive,  and  when 

Will  you  mention  the  principal  ones,  intransitive?  .583. 

with  their  imperfect  tenses?  580.  How,  then,  are  verbs  often  used?  583. 


DEFECTIVE    VERBS.  91 

584.  A  neuter  or  intransitive  verb,  by  the  addition  of  a  preposition,  may 
become  a  compound  active -transitive  verb  ;  as,  to  smile  is  intransitive  ;  it 
cannot,  therefore,  be  followed  by  an  objective  case,  nor  be  changed  into 
the  passive  form.  We  cannot  say,  "She  smiled  him,"  or,  *'He  was 
smiled;"  but  we  say,  very  properly,  "She  smiled  on  him;"  "He  was 
smiled  on  by  her." 

585.  Prepositions  affect  the  meaning  of  verbs  in  different  ways.  To  cast 
means  to  throw;  as,  "He  cast  a  stone  at  her."  To  cast  up,  however, 
means  to  compute ;  as,  "He  casts  up  his  accounts."  In  all  instances  in 
which  the  preposition  follows  the  verb,  and  modifies  its  meaning,  it  should 
be  considered  a  part  of  the  verb,  and  be  so  treated  in  parsing. 

586.  There  are  some  verbs,  which,  although  they  admit  an  objective 
case  after  them,  still  do  not  indicate  the  least  degree  of  action;  as,  "I 
resemble  my  father."  This  seeming  inconsistency  may  be  easily  recon- 
ciled by  reflecting  that,  in  all  such  cases,  the  verb  has  a  direct  reference  to 
its  object.     Of  this  nature  are  the  verbs  retain,  resemble,  own,  have,  &c. 

587.  Some  neuter  or  intransitive  verbs  admit  of  a  passive  form,  and  are 
thence  called  neuter  passive  verbs ;  as,  "  John  goes  home  to-night."  Here 
goes  is  an  intransitive  verb.  But  in  the  sentence,  "  John  is  gone  home," 
is  gone  is  a  neuter  passive  verb.  Again,  in  the  phrase,  "  William  comes," 
comes  is  an  intransitive  verb ;  and  in  the  phrase,  "  William  is  come,"  is 
come  is  a  neuter  passive  verb. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
1. 
V  William  had  had  many  advantages     "  He  has  had  many  precious  oppor- 
before  he  improved  them  in  a  tunities." 

proper  manner."  "  John   will  do    as    his  instriicter 

if*  A  good  scholar  will  not  do  what  (1.)  directs." 

is  forbidden  by  his  instructer."      "  He  may  have  had  time." 

2. 

"  I  own  this  book."  "  I  cannot  believe  him." 

"  Charles  resembles  his  parents."  "  His  father   does  not  hesitate  to 

"  He  retains  his  place."  trust  him." 

3. 

•*  The  farmer  casts  seed  into   the     "  She  smiles  sweetly." 
ground."  "  She  smiled  on  John." 

"  The  merchant  casts  up  his  ac-     "  John  was  smiled  on  by  fortune  in 
counts  often."  every  undertaking." 

4. 
"  The  instructer  has  come."  **  Mary  was  gone  before  her  mother 

"  Our  instructer  has  come."  came." 

"William   has   gone    to  visit    his     "When  they  came  to  town,  they 

parents."  made  many  purchases." 

"  Susan  has  gone." 

How  can    an    intransitive   verb   be-  Is  resemble,  strictly  speaking,  a  transi- 

come  transitive  ?  584.    Give  an  example,  tive  verb  ?  586. 

584.  Why  does  it  admit  an  object  after  it? 

What  does  to  east  mean  ?  585.  586. 

Meaning  of  to  cast  up  7  585.  There  are  several  verbs  of  this  class; 

When  may  the  preposition  be  reckoned  will  you  name  some  of  them  ?  586. 

a  part  of  the  verb  ?  585.  What  is  a  neuter  passive  verb  1  587. 

How  should  it  be  considered  in  pars-  Give  an  example.  587. 

ing  ?  585.  Will  you  now  parse  the  next  lessons  ? 

(1.)  What  standi  for,  « that  which,"  or,  <«  the  thing  which."   Apply  Rules  V.  VI.  and  VUI. 


92  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

LI.    OF  ADVERBS. 

588.  Adverbs  are  words  joined  to  verbs,  participles,  adjec- 
tives, and  other  adverbs,  to  qualify  them. 

589.  Expressions  like  the  following,  namely,  a  few  days  ago,  long  since, 
none  at  all,  at  length.,  in  vain,  by  no  means,  a  great  deal,  &c.,  are  denomi- 
nated adverbial  phrases,  when  they  are  used  to  quahfy  verbs  or  participles, 
by  expressing  the  manner,  time  or  degree  of  action. 

590.  The  definite  article  the  is  frequently  placed  before  adverbs  of  the 
comparative  and  superlative  degrees,  to  give  the  expression  more  force  ;  as, 
"  The  more  he  walks,  the  better  he  feels."  When  the  article  is  used  in 
this  sense,  both  the  article  and  adverb  may  be  reckoned  an  adverbial  phrase, 
and  be  so  considered  in  parsing. 

591.  You  have  doubtless  noticed  that  most  words  ending  in  ly  are  ad- 
verbs. The  reason  of  this  is  that  ly  is  a  cohtraction  of  the  adverb  like  : 
thus,  from  manlike  we  form  manly  :  gentlemanly  is  a  contraction  of  gentle- 
manlike.— Hence, 

592.  If  you  meet  with  a  word  ending  in  ly,  implying  in  its  signification 
the  idea  of  like,  you  may  conclude  at  once  that  it  is  an  adverb. 

RUZiS  IX. 

Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  and  other 

adverbs* 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  In  vain  we  look  for  perfect  happiness.'^'* 

593.  In  vain  is  an  adverbial  phrase,  and  qualifies  look,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  IX. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

**  John  has  come  again,  but  William  "  William  acted  very  nobly." 

has  not."  "  I  will  by  no  means  consent." 

"Very  many  persons  fail  of  happi-  " He  wrote  a  long  letter  a  few  days 

ness."  ago."  (1.) 

"A  vast  many  evils  are  incident  to  "John  was  writing  carelessly." 

man  in  his  wearisome  journey  "  I  have  admonished  her  once  and 

through  life."  again." 

"  The  instructress  has    at    length  "  A  few  days  ago,  there  was  much 

arrived."  excitement  in  town." 

LI.    What  is  the  meaning  of  adverb  ?  When  are  they  to  be  considered  ad- 

228.  verbial  phrases  1  589. 

To  what  is  the  adverb  joined  ?  588.  la  the  article  the  ever  joined  to  an  ad- 

For  what  purpose  ?  588.  verb  ?  590.    For  what  purpose  ?  590. 

HnSfiLmfn/v^'^Rj'"^  P^'*'        '^""'^  What  do  the  article  and  adverb  form 

does  It  qualify?  588.  .          .  ra<?P^'?  nqn 

Which  are  they  ?  588.  in  such  cases?  590. 

What  is  the  definition  of  an  adverb  ?  How  is  it  to  be  considered  in  parsing  ? 

588.  590. 

Are  adverbs  compared  ?*  How  came  most  words  ending  in  ly  to 

Will  you  compare  wisely?  235.  soon?  be  considered  adverbs?   591.     Give  an 

234.  example.  591. 

How  are  they  compared?  236.  How  can  we  determine  between  words 

Will  you  compare  the  adverbs  much?  ending  in  ly,  whether  or  not  they  are  ad- 

wcll  ?  bad  ?  ill  7  237.  verbs  ?  592. 

Some  adverbs  are  not  regular  in  their  What  rule  do  you  apply  when  you 

comparison,  will  you  name  one?  237.  parse  an  adverb?  IX. 

Will  you  name  four  or  five  adverbial  "  In  vain  we  look."    Will  you  parse 

phrases ?  589.  in  vain?' 593. 


(1.)  A  feui  days  o^f o— an  adverbial  phrase.  *  See  question  to  234. 


PREPOSITIONS.  93 

Note  IX.  To  qualify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  and 
other  adverbs,  we  should  use  adverbs ;  but  to  qualify  nouns, 
we  should  use  adjectives. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  William  writes  good."*  "  Harriet  dresses  neat." 

"  Susan  studies  diligent"  "  On  conditions  suitably  to  his  rank." 

"  He  speaks  fluently  and  reasons  "  He  speaks  correct." 

correct."  "  Mary  sings  admirable." 

•*  John  writes    tolerable  well,    but  "  He  writes  elegant." 

readst  miserable."  "  He  reads  and  spells  very  bad." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

594.  Will  you  write  down  a  sentence,  containing  a  compound  active- 
transitive  verb  ?     One,  having  a  neuter-passive  verb? 

Will  you  compose  two  or  more  sentences  about  a  lion?  Two  or  more, 
about  sheep  ?  Two  or  more,  about  a  cow  1  One,  about  an  ox  ?  One,  about 
a  dog  7  One,  about  a  cat  ?  One,  about  Africans  ?  One,  about  Indians  ? 
One,  about ^sAes?  One,  about  steam-boat  disasters?  One,  about  stage 
mcidents? 


LIL    OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

595.  Prepositions  are  used  to  connect  words,  and  to  show 
the  relation  between  them. 

596.  We  not  unfrequently  meet  with  verbs  compounded  of  a  preposition 
and  verb  ;  as,  "  to  wphold,"  "to  invest, "  "to  overlook;"  and  this  com- 
position sometimes  gives  a  new  sense  to  the  verb;  as,  "  to  M7i(ierstand," 
"to  io2«/idraw."  But  the  preposition  more  frequently  occurs  after  the  verb, 
and  separate  from  it ;  as,  "to  cast  wp,"  "to  fall  oti."  The  sense  of  the 
verb,  in  this  case,  is  also  materially  affected  by  the  preposition. 

598.  The  prepositions  after,  before,  above,  beneath,  and  several  others, 
sometimes  appear  to  be  adverbs,  and  may  be  so  considered;  as,  "They 
had  their  reward  soon  after  ;"  "He  died  not  long  before  ;"  "He  dwells 
above  ;"  but  if  the  noun  time  or  place  be  added,  they  lose  their  adverbial 
form  ;  as,  "  He  died  not  long  before"  [that  time] ,  &<c. 

599.  There  is  a  peculiar  propriety  in  distinguishing  the  correct  use  of  the 
different  prepositions.  For  illustration,  we  will  take  the  following  senten- 
ces :  "He  walks  with  a  staffs?/  moonlight ;"  "He  was  taken  by  stratagem, 
and  killed  with  a  sword."     Put  the  one  preposition  for  the  other,  and  say, 

Will  you  next  parse  the  remaining  ex-  compounded?  596.  Give  an  example, 
ercises?  j  596. 

When  should  W6  use  adverbs?    Note         Where  is  the  preposition    more  fre- 

'when  adjectives?  Note  IX.       '  ?r"'  '''''''  '''•    """'  '"^  '''"''''' 

thisYemlre'Incorref^^^^^^      '^''"'^"  ^'         Will  you  name  four  prepositions  which 
Wryou  now^^^^^^^^^  correct  the  re-     %^^''y  ^"^t^"^^^  ^PP^^^-  '^  ^^  ^^^^'''^  ^ 


maining  exercises  ? 


598. 


LIL    What  is  the  meaning  of  preposi-  How  may  they  be  converted  into  pre- 

tion  7  244.  positions  again  ?  598. 

What  are  prepositions  ?  595.  "  He  walks  by  a  stalTwith  moonlight." 

Will  you  repeat  the  list?  247.  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  yien 

With  what  are  verbs  not  unfrequently  repeat  the  phrase  ? 


*  For  the  adjective  good,  we  should  use  the  adverb  voeU,  according  to  Note  IX. 

t  Read$  a^eea  with  John  understood,  and  is,  therefore,  coauected  with  vorites  by  the  conjunction  Ivi.  ftgre^ 
ably  to  Rule  XI. 


94  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

**He  walks  hy  a  staff  with  moonlight;"  *'  He  was  taken  with  stratagem, 
and  killed  hy  a  sword ;"  and  it  will  appear  that  they  differ  in  signification 
more  than  one,  at  first  view,  would  be  apt  to  imagine. 

RXTI.I:    X. 

Pl^epositions  govern  the  objettive  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  John  lives  within  his  income^ 

600.  Within  is  a  preposition. 

Income  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, NEUTER  GENDER,  OBJECTIVE  CASE,  and  govcmed  by  within,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  X. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

"Thomas  made  his  fortune  by  in-  He  made  the   sun  to  shine  by 

dustry."  day,  and  tlie  moon  (1.)  to  give 

"  Susan  labors  with  her  needle  for  light  by  night." 

a  livelihood,"  "  Beneath   the   oak    lie    acorns   in 

"  Respecting  that  affair,  there  was  great  abundance." 

a  controversy."  "  John,  who  is  at  all  times  watch- 

•*  In  six  days  God  made  the  world,  ful  of  his   own    interest,  will 

and   all  things   that  are  in  it.  attend  to  that  concern." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

601.  Will  you  fill  up  the  following  sentences  with  suitable  prepositions 

to  make  sense?     "John  was  —  the  house  when  he  was  seized  a 

fit."  "  The  busy  bee  —  summer  provides  food  —  the  approaching  winter 
—  the  prudence  —  a  rational  being." 

Will  you  supply  the  objects  to  the  following?  "James  was  catch- 
ing   ."     "  He  was  beating ."     "  He  supports ." 

Will  you  supply  agents  or  nominative  cases  to  the  following  ?  was 

running."     " was  dancing." 

Will  you  supply  verbs  in  the  following?    "A  dutiful  child  his 

parents."     "  Grammar us correctly." 

Will  you  compose  two  or  more  sentences  about  hoys  ?  One,  about 
whales  ?  One,  about  snakes  ?  One,  about  foxes  ?  One,  about  parents  ? 
One,  about  hrothers  ?  One,  about  sisters  ?  One,  about  uncles  ?  One,  about 
auntsl 


LIIL    OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

602.  A  CONJUNCTION  is  a  word  that  is  chiefly  used  to  con 
nect  sentences,  so  as,  out  of  two  or  more  sentences,  to  make 
but  one. 

Will  you  repeat  the  rule  respecting  the         What  is  a  simple  sentence  ?  253.  Give 

government  of  nouns  by  prepositions  ?X.  an  example.      A  compound  sentence? 

"  John  lives  within  his  income."  Will  256.    Give  an  example, 
you  parse  within  1  COO   income?  600.  Why  called  compound?  254. 

Will  you  now  take  the  remaining  ex-         LIII.     Meaning  of  conjunction?  257. 
ercises  to  be  parsed;  after  which,  those         What  is  a  conjunction?  602. 
to  be  written  ?  Meaning  of  copulative?  264. 


(1.)  The  sense  is,  «  He  made  the  moon."    3foon,  then,  is  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  made  undentood, 
and  counected  with  sun,  by  Rule  XI. 


INTERJECTIONS.  95 

603.  Relative  pronouns,  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  to  connect  sen- 
tences ;  as,  "  Blessed  is  the  man  who  feareth  the  Lord." 

604.  Conjunctions  very  often  unite  sentences  when  they  appear  to  unite 
only  words;  as,  in  the  following  sentences:  "Duty  and  interest  forbid 
vicious  indulgences."  "Wisdom  or  folly  governs  us."  Each  of  these 
forms  of  expression  contains  two  sentences,  namely,  the  first,  "  Duty  for- 
bids vicious  indulgences ;"  "Interest  forbids  vicious  indulgences:"  the 
second,  "  Wisdom  governs  us ;"  "  Folly  governs  us." 

BUIiZ!  XI. 

Conjunctions  connect  verbs  of  the  same  mood  and  tense, 

and  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  same  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

605.  "  William  writes  and  ciphers.''^ 
And  is  a  copulative  conjunction. 

Ciphers  is  a  regular  active  intransitive  verb,  from  the  verl) 
to  cipher  —  ^* Pres.  cipher;  Imperf,  ciphered;  Per,  part,  ciphered. 
1.  I  cipher ;  2.  You  cipher ;  3.  He  or  William  ciphers" — made  in  the 
indicative  mood,  pI^sent  tense,  third  person  singular,  and 
agrees  with  William  understood,  and  is  connected  to  writes  by  the 
conjunction  and^  agreeably  to  Rule  XI. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED.     " 

"  John  ciphers   rapidly,  and  reads  "  Though  he  is  lively,  yet  he  is  not 

correctly."  too  volatile." 

"If  we  contend   about  trifles,  and  "  If  he  has  promised,  he  should  act 

violently    maintain    our    opin-  accordingly." 

ions,   we    shall    gain   but   few  "  He  denied  that  he  circulated  the 

friends."  report." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

606.  Will  you  compose  a  sentence  containing  the  conjunction  ifl  One, 
containing  andl  As  many  sentences  as  there  are  conjunctions  which 
follow ;  each  sentence  containing  one  ?  Although,  Unless.  For.  Be- 
cause.    Therefore.     Or.     Neither.     Nor. 

*  Will  you  compose  a  sentence  about  Jackson  ?    One,  about  Clay  ?  One, 
about  Monroe  ?    One,  about  Madison  ? 


LIV.    OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

607.  Interjectioi^s  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  sentences,  to  express  the  passions  or  sudden  feelings 
of  the  speaker. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  copulative  con-  Do  conjunctions  ever  connect  senten- 
junction  ?  265.  ces  when  they  appear  to  connect  words 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  copulative      only  ?  (i04.    Give  an  example.  604. 

'^®iVru"*H*^"^V^^'^*    ,.       •       r  ,  o.,  "William  writes  and  ciphers."    Will 

What  does  d^sJunct^ves^frx^^fy?  271.  yo„  parse  and?  605.  ciphers?  605. 

What  does  the  disjunctive  conjunction  „_..,           .      ,          ^,     ,        .  ,     .u 

connect^  274  ^^'"  y""'  '"  ^^^  "'^^'^  place,  take  the 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  them  ?  275.  exercises  to  be  parsed  and  written,  and 

What  is  the  rule  for  connecting  words  o'spose  of  them  7 

by  conjunctions  ?  XI.  ,  LIV.    What  is  the  meaning  of  inter 

What  other  words,  besides  conjunc-  jecfion  ?  283. 

tions  and  prepositions,  connect?  603.  What  are  interjections?  607. 


96  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

608.  We  do  not  say,  "Ah,  II"  **  Oh,  I!"  but,  *'Ah,  ipe!"  "Oh, 
me!"  using  the  objective  case  after  the  interjection.  The  pronoun  here 
spoken  of,  you  perceive,  is  of  the  first  person :  hence, 

Note  X.  Pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  put  in  the  objec- 
tive case,  after  the  interjections  Oh  !  O  !  ah!  &c. 

609.  We  say,  "  0  thou  persecutor!"  "  Oh,  ye  hypocrites!"  "  O  thou 
who'dwellest,"  &c. :  hence, 

'    Note  XI.     The  interjections  O  !  oh  !  and  ah  !  require  the 

nominative  case  of  pronouns  in  the  second  person. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

610.  "  A^,  me!   I  must  perish J'^ 

Ah  is  an  interjection. 

Me  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular,  objec- 
tive CASE,  and  governed  by  ah,  agreeably  to  Note  X. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

"O,  thou  (1.)  who  hast  murdered  "Ah!  unhappy  (2.)  thou,  who  art 
thy  friend  !"  deaf  (3.)  to   the   callo   of  duty 

"  O,  thou  who  hearest  prayer  !"  and  honor." 

"Ah,  me!  must  I  endure  all  "Oh!  happy  (4.)  us,  surrounded 
this  ?"  with  so  many  blessings." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

611.  Will  you  compose  a  sentence  containing  wZas  ?  One,  containing 
oh  ?  One,  about  volcanoes  ?  One,  about  lakes  ?  One,  about  islands  ?  One, 
about  Webster  the  statesman  ?  One,  about  a  good  scholar  ?  One,  about  a 
poor  scholar  ?    One,  about  a  good  instructer  ? 


LV.     OF  THE  AGREEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

612.  Apposition,  in  grammar,  signifies  the  putting  of  two  nouns  in  the 
same  case. 

613.  When  I  say,  "John  the  mechanic  has  come,"  I  am  speaking  ot 
only  one  person;  the  two  nouns,  John  and  mechanic,  both  meaning  or 
referring  to  the  same  person ;  consequently  they  are  put,  by  apposition,  in 
the  same  case :  hence, 

RlTZiS   XV. 

IVhen  two  or  more  nouns,  in  the  same  sentence,  signify 
the  same  thing,  they  a^e  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same 
case. 

Will  you  repeat  from  the  list  six  inter-  Will  you  now  take  the  remaining  ex- 

jections?  285.  ercisps  to  be  parsed  and  written  ? 

How  may  an  interjection  generally  be  LV.    Meaning  of  apposition  ?  612. 

known?  286.  "John   the  mechanic."     How  many 

"  Ah,  me  !"    In  what  case  is  me  ?  610.  persons  are  here  spoken  of?  613.  Should, 

What  rule  or  note  applies  to  wie?  X.  then,   the    two    nouns,    Jahn    and   me- 

*'  O  thou,"  &c.    What  note  applies  to  chanic,  be  in  the  same,  or  a  different 

thou?  XL  case?  613. 

"  Ah,  me!"    Will  you  parse  ah?  me?  What  is  the  rule  for  this  agreement? 

310. XV\ 

(1.)  For  thou,  apply  Note  XI.  (2.)  Agrees  with  thou,  by  Rule  IV. 

(3.)  Belongs  to  who,  by  Rule  IV.  (4.)  Apply  Rule  IV. 


EXERCISES.  97 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

614.  "  Webstei'  the  statesman  has  left  ws." 
Statesman  is  a  common  noun,  masculine  gender,  third  person, 

SINGULAR  number,  NOMINATIVE  CASE,  and  put  in  apposition  with  Web- 
ster, by  Rule  XV. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
1. 

"John  the  Baptist  was  beheaded."       "  Cicero,  the  orator,  flourished   in 

*  David,  the  thief,  was  apprehend-  the   time  of  CatiUne,  the  con- 

ed." spirator." 

♦Johnson,  the  bookseller,  has  failed     "I  visit  Thompson,  the  professor, 
in  business."  often." 

"I    consulted  Williams,  the  law-     "John,    the    miller,    died    yester- 
yer."  day." 

2. 

"If  John  will  not  go,  I  will  go  my-     "We  will   inspect  the  goods  our. 
self."  (1.)  selves." 

"  You  yourself  are  in  fault."  "  I,  I  am  the  man  who  committed 

"  They  themselves  were  mistaken."  the  deed." 

BemarJc  1. —  For  the  same  reason  that  one  noun  agrees  with  another  in 

case,  it  agrees  with  it  in  number  and  person  also. 

"  I,  Alexander,  by  the  grace  of  God,     "  We,    the    representatives   of  the 
emperor   of   all  the    Russians,  people    of    these    colonies,    do 

promulgate  this  law."  make  this  declaration." 

Remark  2. — When  one  noun  describes  or  quahfies  another,  the  one  so 

quahfying  becomes  an  adjective  in  sense,  and  may  be  so  considered  in 

parsing.     Accordingly,  Tremont,  in  the  phrase,   **  Tremont  House,"  is  an 

adjective  belonging  to  House,  by  Rule  IV. 

615.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

**The  Marlborough  Hotel  is  situated  "  John  Dobson  was  in  town  yester- 

in  Washington-street."  day." 

"  The  firm  of  Messrs.  Williams  &  "  John  Johnson,  the  blacksmith,  has 

Sons,  has  failed."  broken  his  leg." 

Remark  3. — When  the  nouns  which  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing  are 
separated  by  verbs;  as,  "Webster  is  a  statesman,"  it  is  customary  to 
apply  one  or  more  of  the  following  rules : 

1.  Any  verb  may  have  the  same  case  after  it  as  before  it,  when  both  words 
refer  to  the  same  thing.  ^ 

2.  The  verb  to  be,  through  all  its  variations,  has  the  same  case  after  it  as 
that  which  next  precedes  it. 

"Webster  the  statesman."    Will  you  "Tremont    House."     What    part   of 

parse  sfafesman  ?  614.  speech    is    Tremont?    Remark  2.    How 

Will  you  now  parse  the  succeeding  ex-  used  here?  Remarks.    Will  you  parse 

ercises?  it  in  full  ? 

"  I  will  go  myself."    Will  you  parse  Will  you  now  parse  all  the  exercises 

myself?  under  Remark  2? 

How  is  the  compound  personal  pro-  What  is  the  rule  or  rules  usually  giv- 

noun  formed  in  the  singular?  386.    How  en  for  parsing  statesman,  in  the  phrase, 

in  the  plural  ?  386.  "  Websier  is  a  statesman  ?"  Remark  3, 

When  one  noun  is  put  in  apposition  1,  2,  3,  4. 

with  another,  in  what  particulars  does  it  In  the  same  sentence,  do  Webster  and 

agree  with  it  ?  Remark  1.  statesman  both  mean  or  refer  to  the  same 

Will  you  now  parse  the  next  exer-  person?  In  what  case,  then,  ought  they 

cises?  to  be?  613.    By  what  rule  ?  XV. 

(1.)  Mysdf  M  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  firrf  j>»**o*'  singular,  ccjiinative  case,  and  put  in  appositioa 
■with  7,  by  Rule  XV. 

7 


98 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


3.  Passive  verbs  of  naming,  judging,  ^c.  have  the  same  case  after  them  ai 
before  them. 
I       4.  Neuter  verbs  have  the  same  case  after  Ijtem  as  before  them. 

616.  The  foregoing  rules,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  are  wholly  unne- 
cessary, tending  merely  to  confuse  the  mind  of  the  learner  by  requiring  him 
to  make  a  distinction  in  form,  when  there  exists  none  in  principle.  In  cor- 
roboration of  this  fact,  Mr.  Murray  has  the  following  remark  : — 

617.  **  By  these  examples  it  appears,  that  the  verb  to  be  has  no  govern- 
ment of  case,  but  serves  in  all  its  forms  as  a  conductor  to  the  cases ;  so  that 
the  two  cases,  which,  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  are  the  next  be- 
fore and  after  it,  must  always  be  aUke.  Perhaps  this  subject  will  be  more 
intelhgible  by  observing  that  the  words,  in  the  cases  preceding  and  following 
the  verb  to  be,  may  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence,  *  I  understood  it  to  be  him,^  the  words  it  and  him  are  in  apposi- 
tion ;  that  is,  they  refer  to  the  same  thing,  and  are  in  the  same  case." 

618.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

1. 
"  Webster  is  a  statesman." 
"  John  is  a  good  scholar." 
"  William  will  become  a  distinguish- 
ed and  valuable  citizen." 
"  She  walks  a  queen."  (1.) 
"He  is  styled  Lord  (1.)  Mayor  (1.) 

of  London." 
"  He  was  named  John."  (1.) 

2. 
"  Susan  took  her  to  be  Mary."  (1.) 
"  I  took  him  to  be  John  (2.)  Og- 

den." 
"  We  at  first  took  it  to  be  her,  but 

afterwards  were  convinced  that 

(3.)  it  was  not  she." 
"  He  is  not  the  person  who  (4.)  it 

seemed  he  was." 
"  I  understood  it  to  be  him  (1.)  who 

Remark  3. — It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  connecting  verb  is  omit- 
ted ;  as,  *'  They  made  him  captain ;"  that  is,  to  be  captain. 

3. 
"  They  named  him  John."  "  They  proclaimed  him  king." 

"  The     soldiers     made    him     gen-     "  His  countrymen  crowned  him  em- 

eral."  peror." 


"  She  moves  a  queen."  (1.) 
"  Julius  Caesar  was  that  Roman  gen- 
eral who  conquered  the  Gauls." 
"Tom  struts  a  soldier."  (1.) 
"  Will  sneaks  a  scrivener." 
"  Claudius   Nero,  Caligula's   uncle, 
a  senseless  fellow,  obtained  the 
kingdom." 

is   the  son  of    Mr.  (2.)   John 

Quincy  (2.)  Adams."  (1.) 
"  She  is  not  now  the  person  whom 

they   represented    her    (1.)    to 

have  been." 
"  Whom  (5.)  do  you  fancy  them  to 

be?" 
"  The  professor  was  apnointed  tutor 

to  the  prince." 


/ 


SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"She  is  the  person  who   I   under- 
stood it  to  have  been." 
"  Who  do  you  think  me  to  be  ?" 
"  Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?" 
"  Whom  think  ye  that  I  am  ?" 


619. 
"  It  might  have  been  him,  (6.)  but 

there  is  no  proof  (7.)  of  it." 
"Though   I  was   blamed,  it  could 

not  have  been  me." 
"  I  saw  one  who  I  took  to  be  she." 


What  office  does  the  verb  to  be  perform 
between  cases  ?  617. 

Are  the  cases  next  before  and  after  it, 
alike,  or  different?  617. 

What  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Murray 
respecting  the  cases  before  and  after  to 
be  ?  617. 

How  does  he  think  it  and  kirn  should 


be  parsed  in  the  phrase,  "I understood  it 
to  be  him?"  617. 

Will  you  now  parse  lessons  1, 2,  and  3  ? 

Is  the  verb  to  be  always  expressed  ?  Re- 
mark 3.    Give  an  example.    Remark  3. 

Will  you  now  take  the  sentences  to  be 
parsed  and  corrected ;  also,  those  to  be 
written  ? 


(1.)  Apply  Rule  XV.      .     (2.)  Remark  2,  (3.)  Coniunction.  (4.)  T^^o  Is  put  in  apposition  with  Ae, 

by  Rule  XV  (6.)  Whom  agrees  with  them,  by  Rule  XV.  (6.)  Ihm  should  be  Ac  to  agree  with  it,  ac 

cording  to  Rule  XV.  (7.J  Apply  Rule  VI. 


NOUNS.  '  99 

620.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  a  sentence  having  nouns  in  apposition  ?  One,  having 
nouns  in  apposition,  but  separated  by  a  verb  ?  One,  having  a  noun  used  as 
an  adjective  ? 

Will  you  construct  a  sentence  having  in  it  the  word  who  ?  One,  having 
whose  ?  One,  having  whom  ?  One,  having  what  ?  One,  having  that  ?  One, 
having  man?  One,  having  woman?  One,  having  hoy?  Ope,  having ^iris? 
One,  having  parents  ? 


LVI.    OF  NOUNS  USED  INDEPENDENTLY. 

621.  To  address  signifies  to  speak  to;  as,    "James,  your  father  has 
fiome."     The  name  of  the  person  addressed  must  always  be  of  the  second 

"person  ;  and  a  noun  in  this  situation,  when  it  has  no  verb  to  agree  with  it, 
afld  is  wholly  disconnected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is  said  to  be  inde- 
pendent.    Hence, 

nxjiiZs  XVI- 

When  an  address  is  made,  the  name  of  the  person  or  thing 
addressed  is  in  the  nominatiue  case  independent. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

622.  "  John,  will  you  assist  me  V* 

John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  second  person,  singular  number, 

MASCULINE  GENDER,  and  NOMINATIVE  CASE  INDEPENDENT,  aCCOrding  tO 

Rule  XVI. 

EXERCISES   IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

1. 

"My  lords,  (1.)  the  time  has  come  "Rufus,   you    must   improve  your 

when  we   must  take   some  de-  time." 

cisive  measures."  "  Gentlemen  of  the  jury." 

"  In  making  this  appeal  to  you,  my  "James,  (1.)  study  (2.)  your  book." 

fellow-citizens,   I   rely   entirely  "  William,  do  try  to  get  your  lesson 

on  your  candor."  to-day." 

2. 

"  Boys,  attend  to  your  lessons."  "  My  dear  children,  let  no  root  of 

"  Girls,  come  into  school."  bitterness     spring    up     among 

•*  Did  you  speak  to  me,  girls  ?"  you." 

LVI.  "  James,  your  father  has  come."  When  is  a  noun  independent  ?  621. 

Which  word  here  is  the  name  of  the  per-  What  is  the  rule  for  a  noun  put  inde- 

sou  addressed?  pendently  ?  XVI. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  to  address?  In  the  sentence,  "John,  will  you  assist 

621.  me  ?"  will  you  parse  John  ?  622. 

Of  what  person  is  a  noun  when  nn  Will  you   next   parse  the  rest  of  the 

address  is  made  ?  621.  exercises  in  this  rule? 


(I.)  Rule  XVI.  (2.)  Imperative  mood,  and  agrees  with  thou  or  you  underBtood,  by  Rule  VIl. 


100  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

LVII.     OF  NOUNS  IN  THE  CASE  ABSOLUTE. 

623.  In  the  phrase,  *'  The  sun  being  risen,  we  set  sail,"  the  first  clause 
of  the  sentence,  namely,  "  The  sun  being  risen,"  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  remainder :  the  noun  and  participle  may,  therefore,  when  taken  together, 
be  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case  independent ;  but  as  we  have  already 
one  case  of  this  nature,  we  will,  for  the  sake  of  making  a  distinction,  call 
this  (the  noun  joined  with  a  participle)  the  nominative  case  absolute.  Hence, 

RITi:<IS    XVIZ. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  before  a  participle,  and  independent 
of  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is  in  the  nominative  case 
absolute, 

624.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"The  sun  (1.)  being  risen,  (2.)  we  "  WeHington    having    returned    to 

departed."  England,  tranquillity   was    re- 

"  Egypt  being  conquered,  Alexander  stored  to  France." 

returned  to  Syria."  "  Bonaparte    being   conquered,  the 

"  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  was  king  was  restored." 

lost."  "The    conditions    being   observed, 

"The    soldiers    retreating,   victory  the     bargain    was     a     mutual 

was  lost."  benefit." 

625.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  Him  (3.)  only  excepted,  who  was  "  Him    being    destroyed,     the    re- 

a  murderer."  maining    robbers    made     their 

"  Her  being  dismissed,  the  rest  of  escape." 
the  scholars  behaved  well." 


LVIII.     OF  TFIE  INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Note  XII. — A  verb   in   the   infinitive  mood  is  sometimes 
placed  independently ;  as,  "  To  be  frank,  I  own  I  have  injured 
you." 
626.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  To  confess   the  truth,  I  was   in  "  To  tell  the  plain  truth,  I  persuaded 

fault.  him  to  stay." 

"To  display  his  power,  he  oppres-  "To  convince  you,  I  will  continue 

sed  his  soldiers."  here  till  you  return." 

LVII.    "The  sun  being  risen,  we  sel  LVIII.      "To   confess   the    truth,    I 

sail."    How  many  words  in   this  sen-  was,"  &cc.    How  is  to  confess  used?  — 

tence,  used  independently,  are  taken  to-  Note  XII. 

gether  ?  623.  What  is  the  rule  for  it  ?  Note  XIL 

^hll^f'VVfo'.'^'^  denominated  the  case  ^^.^^  .^  ^^^  infinitive  mood  used  for? 

absolute?  623.  ^~q 

^  What  is  the  rule  for  the  case  absolute  ?  '  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^3  ^^^  j^ ,  52g 

Will  you  now  take  the  parsing  exer-         What  is  its  usual  sign  ?  517. 
cises  under  Rule  XVII.,  and  then  the         Will  you  now  parse  the  exercises  un- 
sentences  to  be  corrected  ?  der  Note  XII.  ? 

{\.)  In  the  nominative  case  absolute  witlj  being  risen,  by  Rule  XVII.  (2.)  Rule  XIII. 

,   (3.)  When  a  noun  is  in  the  oase  absolute,  it  should  be  in  the  nominative  case.    Him  should  therefore  be  Ae, 
by  Rule  XVII. 


MOOD.  101 

"  To  play  is  pleasant."  What  is  pleasant  ?  "  To  play."  The  infinitive 
to  play  is,  then,  the  nominative  case  to  is.  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  required 
of  all  men."  What  is  required?  **  Thou  shalt  not  kill."  The  verb  is  re- 
quired, then,  agrees  with  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill,"  as  its  nominative.    Hence, 

626-1.     Note  XIII. — The   infinitive   mood,   or   part  of  a 

sentence,  is  frequently  put  as  the  nominative  case  to  a  verb  of 

the  third  person  singular. 

627.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"To    excel    requires    much    exer-     "Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  the   com 

tion."  mand  of  God." 

"  To  abandon  friends  will  sink   a     "  Honor    thy    father  and  thy  mo- 
man's  character."  ther,  is  required  of  all  men." 
"To   practise   religion  is  our  du-     "To   write    a   fair  hand   requires 
ty."  practice." 
Remark  1. — To  excel  is  the  nominative  case  to  requires,  by  Note  XHI., 
and  requires  agrees  with  to  excel,  by  Rule  VH.     In  parsing,  "  Thou  shalt 
not  kill,"  we  first  apply  Rules  Vl.,  VH.  and  IX.     The  whole  phrase  is 
considered  the  nominative  to  is  required,  by  Note  XIII. 

2.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  is  frequently  the  object 
of  a  transitive  verb  ;  as,  **  Boys  love  to  play."     What  do  boys  love  ?  '*  To 

Elay."  The  object  of  love,  then,  is  to  play.  "  Children  do  not  consider 
ow  much  has  been  done  for  them  by  their  parents."  Consider  what? 
^*  How  much  has  been  do7ie  for  them  by  their  parents  ;^^  including  for  the 
object  of  the  verb  the  whole  phrase  in  italics. 

Note  XIV. — The  infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence,  may 

have  an  adjective  or  participle  agreeing  with  it,  when  there  is 

no  noun,  either  expressed  or  understood,  to  which  the  adjective 

may  belong. 

628.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant."  "  Defraud    not    thy   neighbour,  is 

"  To  practise  virtue  will  be  produc-  binding  on  all." 

tive  of  happiness."  "  To  do  good  to  our  enemies,  is  not 

**  To  be  ridiculed  is  unpleasant."  natural  to  our  hearts." 

Eemarks. ^-Pleasant  agrees  with,  **  to  see  the  sun,"  by  Note  XIV.  Bind- 
ing agrees  with,  **  Defraud  not  thy  neighbour,"  by  the  same  authority.  To 
is  apply  Rule  VII. ;  to  sun,  Rule  VIII. ;  to  the  infinitive  to  see,  Note  XIII. 

629.  SENTENCES  TO  BBtWRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  one  or  more  sentences  having  an  infinitive  governed 
by  a  participle  ?  One,  using  an  infinitive  after  a  noun  ?  One,  describing 
the  manner  of  playing  baUl  One,  or  more,  on  the  manner  of  playing 
tag?  One,  on  the  duty  of  children  to  mind  their  parents ?  One,  or  more, 
on  industry  ?  One,  on  the  business  you  intend  to  pursue  for  life  ? 

"  To  play  is  pleasant."    What  is  plea-  Since  we  have  a  rule  for  tn  love,  as  a 

sant  7  What,  then,  is  the  nominative  to  verb,  there  is  no  necessity  for  considering 

is  7  626-1.    Rnle  ?  Note  XIII.  it  the  object  in  parsing :  what  rule,  then, 

"  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  required  of  all  will  you  apply  to  it  ?  XII. 

men."    What  is  required?  Will  you  name  an  example  in  which 

What  is  the  nominative  to  IS  rcgMtred.?  there  is  part  of  a  sentence  used  as  the 

626-1.    Rule  ?  Note  XIII.  object  of  a  verb?  627.  Remark  2. 

Will  you  now  parse  the  remaining  ex-  "To  seethe  sun  is  pleasant."    Will 

ercises  under  this  rule  ?  you  parse  pleasant  ?  to  see  7  the  7  sun  ?  is  ? 

"  Boys  love  to  play."    What  is  the  ob-  Will  you  now  parse  the  remaining  ex- 

ject  of  love  ?  627.    Remark  2.  ercises  under  Note  XIV. 
9* 


102  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

LIX. 

630.  In  the  phrase,  "  John  and  James  are  here,"  the  sense  is,  that  "  John 
and  James  are  both  here  ;"  two  persons  are  therefore  spoken  of,  which  ren- 
ders it  necessary  to  use  the  plural  verb  are,  to  agree  with  two  nouns  which 
individually  are  singular :  hence, 

Bviiz:  XVIII. 

Two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns,  of  the  singular  number, 
connected  together  hy  and,  either  expressed  or  under- 
stood, must  have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns,  agreeing 
with  them  in  the  'plural  number, 

631.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

»*  William  and  James  run."  "  John  and  Joseph   can  get  their 
**  Mary  and  Harriet  study,  and  they  lessons." 

will  therefore  excel."  "  Time    and     tide    wait    for    no 
"  You  and  I  are  in  fault."  man." 

"  John  and  Thomas  say  they  intend  "  My    coat    and    pantaloons    were 

to  study  Latin."  made  by  Watson." 

Remarks. —  William  is  one  of  the  nominatives  to  the  verb  run.  James  is 
m  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  run,  and  is  connected  with  the  noun  Wil- 
liamt  by  Rule  XI.     Bun  agrees  with  William  and  James,  by  Rule  XVIII. 

632.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

**  Mary  and  her  cousin  has  come."  "  The  farmer    and  his    son   is   in 

"  You  and  I  makes  progress  in  our  town." 

studies."  "  Susan  and  her  sister  is  deceitful." 

"Life    and   health   is  both  uncer-  "William  and  John  both  writes  a 

tain."  good  hand." 

Remarks. — For  has  come,  we  should  read  have  come,  that  the  verb  may  be 
plural,  when  it  has  two  nominatives  connected  by  and,  according  to  Rule 
XVIIL 

Exception  1. — When  and  connects  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular, 
which  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing,  the  verb  must  be  singular ;  as, 
**  Pliny  the  philosopher  and  naturalist  has  greatly  enriched  science." 

633.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"That     superficial     scholar  ^nd  "In  that   house  live   a  great   and 

critic    have    given    new    evi-  distinguished  scholar  and  states- 

dence  of  his  misguided  judg-  man." 

ment"  "  Mr.  Cooper,  the  sailor  and  novel- 

"  There  go  a  benevolent  man  and  ist,  visit  La  Fayette,  the  patriot 

scholar."  and  philanthropist." 

LIX.    When  I  say,  "  John  and  James  Will  you  parse  the  succeeding  exer- 

are  here,"  of  how  many  persons  do  I  cises  ? 

speak?  "  Pliny  the  philosopher  and  naturalist 

Should  we,  then,  use  15  or  flre  ?  630.  has   greatly   enriched   science."     Why 

What  is  the  rule  for  are?  XVIII.  should  we  use  has,  in  this  sentence,  in- 

Will  you  now  parse  the  exercises  un-  stead  of  have?  Exception  1. 

der  Rule  XVIII.?  "That  superficial  scholar    and  critic 

"  William  and  James  run."    Will  you  have  given."    Why  is  have  given  incor- 

parse    William,   in    full?   and?   James?  rect?  Exception  1. 

run  ?  What  is  the  rule  for  has  come  ?  Excep. 

Will  you  parse  the  next  exercises  ?  tion  1. 

"  Mary  and  her  cousin  has  come." —  Will  you  correct  and  parse  the  remain- 
Why  is  this  incorrect  7  632.  ing  exercises  ? 


EXERCISES.  103 

Exception  2. — When  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular,  connected  by  a7id, 
have  each  or  every  joined  with  them,  the  verb  must  be  in  the  singular  number ; 
as,  "Every  person,  every  house,  and  every  blade  of  grass,  was  destroyed." 

634.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  Every   man,   and    every   woman,  "  Each  man  and  each  woman,  were 

and  every  child,  were  taken."  particularly  alluded   to  in   the 

"  Every  tree,  stick  and  twig,  were  report  of  the  affair." 
consumed." 

Remark. —  Were,  in  the  first  of  these  examples,  should  be  changed  for  was, 
because  reference  is  had  to  each  person,  individually  considered,  which,  in  re- 
spect to  the  verb,  is  the  same  in  effect  as  if  one  person  only  was  spoken  of 

Note  XV.  —  Every  is  sometimes  associated  with  a  plural 

noun,  in  which  case  the  verb  must  be  singular ;  as  "  Every 

hundred  years  constitutes  a  century." 

635.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

**  Every  twenty-four  hours  afford  to     "  Every  four  years  add  another  day 
us  the  vicissitudes  of  day  and  to  the  ordinary  number  of  days 

night.'*  in  a  year. 

Remark. — Afford,  in  the  example  above,  is  a  violation  of  the  note  :  it  should 
be  affords,  in  the  singular  number.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  "every  twenty- 
four  hours,"  signifies  a  single  period  of  time,  and  is,  therefore,  in  reality  sin- 
gular. 

Note  XVI.  —  A  verb  in  the  plural  will  agree  with  a  col- 
lective noun  in  the  singular,  when  a  •part  only  of  the  indi- 
viduals are  meant ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided  in  their 
sentiments."  When  the  noun  expresses  the  idea  of  unity,  the 
verb  should  be  singular ;  as,  "  The  council  was  composed 
wholly  of  farmers." 

Remarks. — In  the  foregping  example,  we  use  the  plural  verb  were  divided, 
because  we  refer  to  the  individuals  composing  the  council ;  but  if  no  allusion 
of  this  sort  had  been  made,  and  we  had  spoken  of  it  as  one  entire  body,  we 
should  have  used  the  singular  verb,  according  to  the  common  rule ;  as,  "  The 
council  is  composed  wholly  of  farmers." 

We  apply  to  council,  in  the  first  example.  Note  XVI. ;  to  were  divided^ 
the  same  note ;  and  to  council,  and  was  composed  in  the  second  example, 
Rules  VI.  and  VII. 

636.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

**  The  council  were  divided  in  their  "  My  people  do  not  consider." 

sentiments."  "The    multitude    eagerly     pursue 

**A  part  of  the  men  were   mur-  pleasure  as  their   chief  good." 

dered." 

In  the  first  example,  under  Exception  "  The   council  were  divided."     Why 

2,  why  use  was  destroyed,  rather  than  r\ot  was?    Note  XVI.    Remarks.    Rule? 

were  destroyed?  Exception  2.  Note  XVI. 

Will  you  parse  the  remaining  exercises  When  is  a  noun  called  collective  ?   306. 

under  this  exception,  after  having  cor-  In  what   circumstances  would  it   he 

reeled  them  ?  proper  to  use  the  singular  verb?    Note 

"Every  twenty-four  hours  afford   to  XVI.  .  Give  an  example, 

us."     What   does    "  every  twenty-four  How  do  you  parse  cowwciV,?  Note  XVI. 

hours"  signify,  one   period  of  time,  or  Remarks.      Were  divided?     Note  XVI. 

more  ?    What  is  wrong,  then  ?    Why  ?  Remarks.     Was  composed,  in  the  second 

635.    Remark.  example?    Note  XVI. 

What  is  the  rule  for  this  ?  Note  XV.  Will  you  now  parse  and  correct  the 

Will  you  correct  and  parse  the  otlter  remaining  exercises  under  this  note  ? 
example  ? 


104  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

C37.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
**  My  people  doth  not  consider."  "  The   committee   was    divided    in 

"  The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  their    sentiments,   and   has   re- 

should  g-ive  it  sorrow."  ferred  the  business  to  a  general 

"The  multitude  rushes  to  certain  meeting." 

destruction." 


LX. 

638.  Negative  means  denying  ;  and  affirmative,  asserting  or  declaring 
positively.  A  sentence  in  which  something  is  denied  is  a  negative  one,  and 
a  sentence  in  which  something  is  affirmed  or  positively  asserted,  is  an  affirm- 
ative one.  "Vice  degrades  us,"  is  an  affirmative  sentence,  and  "Labor 
does  not  injure  us,"  is  a  negative  one.  Not,  nothing,  none  at  all,  by  no 
means,  no,  in  no  wise,  ?teither,  no,  none,  <^c.,  are  negative  terms. 

The  phrase,  "I  have  nothing,"  has  one  negative,  and  means,  "I  have 
not  any  thing."  The  phrase,  "I  have  not  nothing,"  cannot  mean  the  same 
as  "  I  have  nothing,"  but  must  mean,  on  the  contrary,  "  I  have  something." 
This  last,  you  perceive,  is  an  affirmative  sentence,  and  signifies  the  same  as 
the  foregoing  one,  "I  have  not  nothing."  Two  negatives,  therefore,  are 
equal  to  an  affirmative.    Hence, 

RUIiS  XZX. 

Two  negatives  in  the  same  sentence,  are   equivalent  to 
an  affirmative. 

639.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  He  spends  all  the  day  in  idleness,  "  Be  (1.)  honest,  nor  (2.)  take  (3.) 

and  I  cannot  prevail  on  him  to  no  shape  nor  semblance  of  dis- 

do  nothing."  guise." 

"  He  cannot  get  no  employment  in  "  He  is  so  (4.)  indolent,  that  he  will 

town."  not  do  nothing."                , 

"  T  cannot  by  no  means  consent."  "  I  did  not  say  nothing." 

"  I  shall  not  take  no  interest  in  the  "  He  cannot  do  nothing  acceptable 

affair."  to  John." 
"  I  never  studied  no  grammar." 

Remarks. — For  nothing,  in  the  above  examples,  read  anything,  in  accord- 
'ance  with  Rule  XIX. 

LX.  What  is  the  meaning  of  ne^aiire?         What  is  "T  have  not  nothing"  equal 

C38.    affirmative?  638.  to  in  expression  ?   G38. 

What  is  a  negative  sentence?    638,         What,  then,  can  we  say  of  two  nega- 

An  alBrmative  one?   638.    Give  an  ex-  tives?    Rule  XIX. 
ample  of  each.  Will  you  next  take  the  exercises  under 

Will  you  name  a  few  negative  terms?  Rule  XIX? 
638.  What  is  a  noun?    4.     article?   350. 

How  many  negatives  has  the  phrase  adjective?  363.     pronoun?  381.    verb? 

"I  have    nothing,"  and  what    does    it  438.      participle?    498.       adverb?    588. 

mean?    638.  preposition?    50.5.       conjunction?    602. 

Meaning  of  "I  have  not   nothing"?  interjection?  607.    common  noun?  301. 

638.  proper  noun?   302.    definite  article ?  80. 

How  many  negatives  has  it  ?  indefinite  article  ?  83. 

What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  "  I  have         How  many  properties  in  grammar  have 

something"?   638.  nouns?  308.    How  many  have  verbs?* 

(1.)  Be  agrees  with  thou  or  you  understood,  by  Rule  VII. 
(2.)  Fornor,  read  and. 

(3.)  Take  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  and  a^ees  with  theu  or  you  vndentood,  and  is  therefor*  consected  to  btf 
accord  in<r  to  Rule  XI. 
(4.)  Adverb. 
*  Mood,  tense,  number,  and  person. 


EXERCISES. 


105 


640.        PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 


"Deep  rivers  move  with. silent  ma- 
jesty; but  small  brooks  are 
noisy." 

"  Deeds  are  fruits ;  words  are  but 
leaves." 

"  It  is  a  bad  horse  indeed  that  will 
not  carry  his  own  provender." 

"The  hog  never  looks  up  to  him 
who  threshes  down  the  acorns." 

"Add  not  trouble  to  the  grief- 
worn  heart." 

"  If  the  counsel  be  good,  it  is  no 
matter  who  gives  it." 

"  By  others'  faults  wise  men  correct 
their  own." 

"When  the  world  says  you  are 
wise  and  good,  ask  yourself  if 
it  be  true." 

"  Sin  and  misery  are  constant  com- 
panions." 


"  Power  discovers  the  disposition  of 

man." 
"Quarrels    are    easily  begun,  but 

with  difficulty  ended." 
"  Force  without  forecast  is  of  little 

worth." 
"  Rome  was  not  built  in  one  day." 
"  In  youth  and  strength   think  of 

old  age  and  weakness." 
"  All    are   not    saints   who    go   to 

church." 
"To   say  well  is   good,  but  to  do 

well  is  better." 
"No   fear    should   deter    us    from 

doing  good." 
"Pride,  perceiving   Humility  hon- 
orable,    often      borrows     her 

cloak." 
"  Say  what  is  well,  but  do  what  is 

better." 


641. 


SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 


Will  you  compose  one  sentence  describing  the  business  of  an  instruC' 
ter?  One,  the  business  of  a  doctor?  One,  the  business  of  a  lawyer?  One, 
of  a  dentist  ?  One,  of  a  surgeon  ?  One,  of  a  farmer  ?  One,  of  a  hlack- 
smith  ?  One,  of  a  miller  ?  One,  of  a  merchant  ?  One,  of  a  grocer  ?  One, 
of  an  apothecary  ?  One,  of  a  legislator  ?  One,  of  a  judge  ?  One,  of  a 
colonel  ?  One,  of  a  captain  ?  One,  of  a  general  ?  One,  of  an  agent  in  a 
factory  ?    One,  of  the  directors  of  a  bank  ? 


LXI. 

642.  When  I  say,  "He  taught  me  grammar,"  I  mean,  "He  taught 
grammar  to  me:"  grammar,  then,  is  the  object  of  the  verb,  and  me  is 
governed  by  the  preposition  to,  understood.  In  the  first  example,  we  have 
two  objective  cases  after  the  verb  taught ;  and  since  there  are  many  instan- 
ces like  the  preceding,  in  which  transitive  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objec- 
tive cases — hence  the  following, 


How  many  participles  are  there?* 
What  are  they  ?  500,  502,  504, 

When  is  a  verb  active?  439. 

When  transitive  ?  440.  When  intran- 
sitive? 441.  How  may  it  be  known? 
154. 

Will  you  decline  I?  thou?  he?  she? 
it?  127. 

Of  what  person  is  I?  my?  usl  their? 
you?  127. 

What  is  mood?  451.  the  indicative? 
452.  potential?  4.')3.  subjunctive?  456. 
infinitive?  479.  imperative?  472.  How 
many  tenses  has  the  indicative?  525. 
subjunctive?  526.  potential?  527.  in- 
tinitive  ?  528.  imperative  ?  529.     What 


are  the  signs  of  the  present  tense  ?  519. 
imperfect?  520.  perfect?  521.  pluper- 
fect? 522.  first  future?  523.  second  fu- 
ture? 524. 

Will  you  now  parse  the  promisc»oua 
exercises  ? 

Will  you  next  take  the  sentences  to  be 
written  ? 

LXI.  "He  taught  me  grammar." 
What  does  this  mean  ?  642.  What,  then, 
is  the  object  of  the  verb,  and  by  what  is 
grammar  governed  ?  642.  By  what  is  me 
governe'd?  642. 

How  many  objective  cases,  then,  fol- 
low the  verb  taught  ?  642. 


106 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


RTTZii:  XX. 

Two  objective  cases,  the  one  of  a  person,  and  the  other 
of  a  thing,  may  follow  transitive  verbs,  of  asking, 
teaching,  giving,  Sfc;  a  preposition  being  under- 
stood, 

"  He  taught  me  grammar,'*^ 

Bemark  1. — In  the  foregoing  example,  me  and  grammar  are  both  govern 
ed  by  tattght,  according  to  Rule  XX. 

EXAMPLES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"My  instructer  gave  me  a  valu- 
able book,  for  my  attention  to 
study." 

"  She  forbade  him  the  presence  of 
the  emperor." 

"The  French  denied  him  the 
privilege  of  an  American  citi- 
zen." 


643. 


"  He  taught  me  grammar." 

*'  William  asked  me  some  ques- 
tions." 

"  My  mother  wrote  me  a  precious 
letter  in  the  month  of  May." 

"  They  allowed  him  his  seat  in 
Congress." 

"  John  gave  me  a  detailed  account 
of  the  whole  transaction." 


LXII. 

b44.  The  natural  construction  of  the  passive  voice  requires  the  object  o 
the  active  verb  to  become  the  nominative  to  the  passive  verb;  as,  "He 
taught  me  grammar ;"  **  Grammar  was  taught  me."     In  some  few  instan- 
ces, just  the  reverse  takes  place  ;  as,  "I  was  taught  grammar ;"  here  the 
object,  grammar  J  is  placed  after  the  verb  :  we  therefore  derive  the  following 


RUXiz:  XXI. 

An   objective   case  may  follow  passive  verbs  of  asjcing, 
teaching,  and  some  others;  as,  "I  was  taught  gram- 
mar." 
5:^  Apply  to  I  Rule  VI.  ;  to  was  taught,  Rule  VII. ;  to  grammar,  Rule 


645. 


EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 


"  John  taught  me  music." 
"  Music  was  taught  me  by  John." 
"  A  question  was  asked  me." 
"  Theresa  was   forbidden   the   pre- 
sence of  the  emperor." 


'  I  was  taught  grammar." 

'  The  presence  of  the  emperor  was 

forbidden  Theresa." 
'  Reading  is  taught  in  almost  every 

school." 


What  rule  is  given  for  cases  of  this 
description  ?  XX. 

By  what  are  me  and  grammar  govern- 
ed ?  642.    Remark  1. 

Will  you  next  parse  the  exercises  un- 
der Rule  XX.? 

LXII.  What  is  the  natural  construc- 
tion of  the  passivo  voice  in  reference  to 


the  object  ?  644.  Give  an  example.  644. 
Give  an  example  where  the  reverse  takes 
place.  644. 

Where  is  the  object  placed  ?  644. 

"  I  was  taught  grammar."  Will  you 
parse  I?  was  taught?  grammar? 

Will  you  next  take  the  exercises  un. 
dor  Rule  XXI.  ? 


EXERCISES.  107 


LXIII. 

646.  When  I  say,  "  He  came  home  last  May,"  the  sense  is,  when  fully 
expressed,  "He  came  to  his  home  in  last  May."  "  John  continued  four 
years  at  the  university ;"  that  is,  *'  during  four  years."  '*  The  horse  ran  a 
mile  ;"  that  is,  "  over  the  space  of  a  mile.  "  John  went  that  way ;"  that 
is,  ^^over  that  way."    From  these  facts  we  derive  the  following 

BUZiE   XXIZ. 

Home,  and  nouns  signifying  which  way,  how  far,  how 
long,  or  time  when,  <^c.,  are  in  the  objective  case ;  a 
preposition  being  understood. 

647.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  He  came  home  last  May."  "  Susan  rides  out  every  day." 

"  John  continued  four  years  at  the  "  William    sleeps    comfortably    all 

university."  night." 

"  John  went  home  once  a  month."  "  John  was  absent  from  home  six 
"Charles  studies   six  hours   every  years." 

day."  "  James  lived  six  years  at  Boston, 
"  John  rode  that  way."  twelve  years  at  Dedhara." 

*'He  ran  a  mile." 

Note  XVII. — After  the  words  liJce  and  unlike,  the  preposi- 
tion to  or  unto  is  frequently  understood ;  as,  "  He  is  like  his 
father ;"  that  is,  "  like  to  his  father."  "  She  is  unlike  her 
sister ;"  that  is,  "  unlike  to  her  sister." 

648.  EXERCISES  IN   SYNTAX. 

"  He  is  like  his  brother."  "John  behaves  like  a  man  in  a  vio- 

"  William,  unlike  his  father,  falsi-  lent  rage." 

fied  his  word."  "  He  is  unlike  any  other  mortal." 

Note' XVIII. — Nouns  signifying  duration,  extension,  quan- 
tity, quality  or  valuation,  are  in  the  objective  case,  without  any 
governing  word.     The  following  are  examples : 

"  The  Atlantic  ocean  is  three  thou-  "  The  cart  weighs  fifteen  hundred 

sand  miles  (1.)  wide."  pounds." 

"  William's  knife  is  worth  eighteen  "  The  wall  which  separates  China 

pence,  or  twenty-five  cents."  from  Tartary,  commonly  called 

"  For  that  article,  which  is  richly  the  great  Chinese  wall,  is  fifteen 

worth  a  dollar,  (2.)  we  cannot  hundred  miles  long,  and  from 

always  get  fifty  cents."  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height." 
"  The  chasm  is  fifty  feet  broad."  . 

Remarks. — (1.)  The  noun  miles  is  governed  according  to  Note  XVIII. 
(2.)  Apply  Note  XVIII. 

LXIII.    '•  He  came  home  last  May."  Will  you  parse  the   exercises   under 

What  does  this  mean,  when  more  fully  Rule  XXH? 

expressed?  646.    Will  you  parse  home?  What  is  the  note  respecting  like  and 

May?  unlike?  XVII. 

"  John  continued  four  years  at  the  uni-  "  He  is  like  his  father."  How  is  father 

i^ersity."  "The  horse  ran  a  mile."  What  parsed?  Note  XVII. 

do  these  sentences  mean,  when  fully  ex-  Will  yon  next  take  the  remaining  ex- 

Vfressed  ?  ercises  under  Note  XVII  ? 


108  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Note  XIX.  —  The  conjunction  as,  after  such,  many  and 
same,  is  generally  considered  a  relative  pronoun ;  as  in  the 
following  examples : 

"  He  receives   into   his    school    as  "  He  took  such   books   as  pleased 

many  scholars  as  (1.)  apply."  him." 

"Our   instructer,   who    is    scrupu-  "He    exhibited    the    same    course 

lously   exact   in    the  execution  of  conduct  as  was  once  before 

of   justice,    punishes    severely  exhibited  on    the    same    occa- 

all   such  as  disobey   his   com-  sion." 

mands." 

Remarks. — (1.)  As  is  a  conjunction,  used  here  as  a  relative,  according  to 
the  Note  preceding ;  of  the  third  person  plural,  masculine  gender,  agreeing 
with  scholars,  according  to  Rule  V. ;  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  apply, 
according  to  Rule  VI. 

Note  XX. — The  conjunction  than  seems  to  have  the  force 
of  a  preposition  before  the  relative  whom,  in  a  sentence  where 
a  comparison  is  made ;  as  follows  : 

"Which,     when     Beelzebub     per-     "Alfred,  than  whom,  Solomon  ex- 
ceived,  than  whom,  (1.)  Satan  cepted,    a    wiser     king     never 

(2.)  excepted,  (3.)  none  higher  reigned,  was  one  of  the  earliest 

sat."  English  kings." 

HemarTcs.'-^l.)  Whom  is  governed  by  the  conjunction  than,  used  as  a  pre- 
position, according  to  Note  XX. — (2.)  Apply  Rule  XVII. — (3.)  Participle 
agreeing  with  Satan,  by  Rule  XIII. — It  is  somewhat  remarkable,  that  if, 
in  the  last  two  examples,  the  personal  pronoun  he  were  substituted  for 
whom,  it  would  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  "A  wiser  king  never  reigned 
than  Ae,""  that  is,  "  than  he  was." 

649.  ENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  a  sentence  having  a  proper  example  under  Rule 
I.?  II.?  III.?  IV.?  v.?  VI.?  VII.?  VIII.?  IX.?  X.?  XI.?  XII.? 
XIIL?  XIV.?  XV.?  XVI.?  XVII.?  XVIII.?  XIX.?  XX.?  XXL? 
XXII.? 

Will  you  construct  a  sentence  descriptive  of  the  calamities  arising  from 
Jire  ?  one,  on  losses  by  sea  ?  one,  on  the  fatal  effects  of  lightning  ?  one, 
on  the  character  of  our  forefathers  ?  one,  on  each  of  the  seasons  ?  one,  on 
the  effects  of  rain?  one,  on  the  manner  of  making  hay?  one,  on  the  wp- 
pearance  of  soldiers  lohen  training?  one,  on  the  celebration  of  the  fourth 
of  July  ?  one,  on  the  utility  of  Jire  ?  one,  on  the  utility  of  wood  ?  one,  on 
the  usefulness  of  the  cow?   one^  on  fruit  ? 

When  is  the  conjunction  as  used  as  a         W^hat  does  English  grammar  teach  ? 

relative  pronoun  ?  Note  XIX.  288.     How  many  parts  of  speech  are 

W^ill  you  parse  as,  in  the  phrase  "He  there  in  English?  299. 
received  into  his  school  as  many  scholars         Whai  does  orthography  inclnde  7  291. 
as  applied"  ?  Note  XIX.  What  does  it  teach  us  ?  291. 

Will  you  parse  the  remaining  exercises         What  does  etymology  teach  ?  293. 
under  this  Note  1  What  are  proper  nouns  ?  302. 

When  is  than  considered  a  preposition  ?         What  are  common  nouns  ?  301. 
Note  XX,    Give  an  example.  In  what  manner  may  proper  names  be 

What  would  be  the  effect  of  using  the  used  as  common  names  ?  303. 
personal  pronoun  instead  of  the  relative?         How  may  common  names  be  used  to> 

Observation  under  Note  XX.    Give  an  represent  individuals?  304.  ,% 

example.  What  is  a  collective  noun?  306. 

Will  you  now  take  the  sentences  to  be  What  four  things  belong  to  nouns  ?  308. 
parsed  and  written?  What    is    gender?    312.       Masculine 

How  many  articles   are  there?   351.  gender?   314.     Feminine  gender?   315. 

Will  you  name  them?  351.    When  do  Common  gender?  316.    Neuter  gender? 

we  use  a?  87,  857.    When  an ?  86.  317. 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH.  lOD, 

LXIV.    OF  )VORDS  USED  AS  DIFFERENT  PARTS 
^       OF  SPEECH. 

650.  That  is  a  relative, 

When  who  or  which  may  be  substituted  for  it,  and  make  sense;   as,- 
**  The  man  that  [who]  arrived  yesterday." 

651.  That  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun, 

When  it  is  joined  with  a  noun  to  point  it  out ;  as,  "  That  man  is  intelli- 
gent." 

652.  That  is  a  conjunction, 

In  all  cases  when  it  is  neither  a  relative  nor  a  demonstrative  pronoun ; 
as,  *'  He  studies  that  he  may  learn." 

653.  But  is  a  preposition, 

When  it  has  the   sense  of   except;    as,    "All    but    [except]    John 
came." 

654.  But  is  an  adverb, 

When  it  has  the  sense  of  only  ;  as,  *'  This  is  but  [only]   doing  our 
duty." 

655.  But  is  a  conjunction. 

In  all  cases  when  it  is  neither  an  adverb  nor  preposition ;  as,  "  He  called, 
but  I  refused  to  go." 

656.  As  is  a  relative, 

When  it  follows  many,  such,  or  same;  as,  "Let  such  as  hear  take 
heed." 

657.  As  is  an  adverb. 

When  it  is  joined  to  an  adverb  or  adjective  in  the  sense  of  so  ;  as,  **  He 
does  as  well  as  he  can." 

658.  As  is  a  conjunction, 

In  all  cases  except  when  it  is  an  adverb  or  relative ;  as,.  "  He  did  as  I 
directed  him." 

659.  Either  is  a  conjunction, 

When  it  corresponds  to  or  ;  as,  "  Either  the  one  or  the  other." 

660.  Either  is  a  distributive  pronoun. 

When  it  means,    "one  of  the  two;"    as,    "You    can   take  either 
road." 

661.  Both  is  a  conjunction. 

When  it  is  followed  by  an^  /  as,  "We  assisted  him  both  for  his  sake 
and  our  own." 

How  may  nouns,  naturally  neuter,  be  noun?  651.    Give  an  example.    When  a 

converted  into  the  masculine  or  feminine  conjunction  ?  652.    Give  an  example, 

gender  ?  318.  When  is  hut  a  preposition  ?  653.    Give 

What  is  the  feminine  corresponding  to  an  example.     When  an  adverb?  654. 

bachelor?  319.    How  is  the  feminine  here  ^tive  an  example.    When  a  conjunction? 

formed''  655.    Give  an  example. 

Will  you   spell    the   feminine  corre-  When  is  as  a  relative?  656.    Give  an 

sponding  to  lah  king  ?  benefactor  7  319.  example.    When  an  adverb  ?  657.    Give 

How  is  the  feminine  here  formed  ?  ?;?  example.    When  a  conjunction  ?  658. 

•  TTr-,,                 II  .u     ^  Give  an  example. 

Will  you   spell  the  feminine   corre-  when  is  either  a  conjunction?   659. 

sponding  to  baron?  poet?  priest!  Jew?  Give  an  example.    When  a  distributive 

votary?  tutor?  hero?  duke 7  instructer?  pronoun?  660.    Give  an  example. 

319-  When  is  both  a  conjunction  ?  661.  Give 

LXIV.    W^hen  is  that  a  relative  ?  650.  an  example.    When  an  adjective  pro- 
Give  an  example.    A  demonstrative  pro-  noun  ?  662.    Give  an  example. 
10  K 


no  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

662.  Both  is  an  adjective  pronoun, 

When  it  means,  "  the  two ;"  as,  *'  Both  the  men  are  ^ilty." 

663.  Yet  is  a  conjunction, 

When  it  follows  though;  as,  "  Though  he  reproves  me,  yet  I  esteem 
him."  In  all  other  cases,  it  is  an  adverb  ;  as,  "That  event  has  yet  to 
come." 

664.  For  is  a  conjunction, 

When  it  means  the  same  as  because  ;  as,  **  He  trusted  him,  for  he  knew 
that  he  would  not  deceive  him." 

665.  For  is  a  preposition. 

In  all  instances  except  when  it  is  a  conjunction;  as,  "He  works  for 
me." 

666.  What  is  a  compound  relative. 

When  it  stands  for,  "  that  which  ;"  as,  "  I  will  take  what  [that  which] 
you  send  me." 

667.  What  is  an  interrogative  relative  pronoun. 

When  used  in  asking  questions  ;  as,  "  What  do  you  want?" 

668.  What  is  an  adjective  pronoun, 

When  joined  with  a  noun  ;  as,  "  What  strange  things  he  said  !" 

669.  What  is  a  compound  adjective  pronoun, 

When  joined  with  nouns,  and  has  the  sense  of  two  or  more  words  ;  as, 
"  In  what  manner  he  succeeded,  is  unknown  to  me  ;"  that  is,  "  The  man- 
ner in  which  he  succeeded,  is  unknown  to  me." 

670.  What  is  an  interjection. 

When  used  to  express  wonder ;  as,  "  What !  take  my  money  ?" 

671.  Then  is  a  conjunction, 

When  it  has  the  sense  of  therefore  ;  as,  "  If  he  has  commanded  it,  then 
I  must  obey." 

672.  Then  is  an  adverb. 

When  it  refers  to  time ;  as,  "  Did  you  hear  it  thunder  then  ?" 

673.  Much  is  a  noun. 

When  it  stands  for  quantity ;  as,  "  Where  much  is  given,  much  will  be 
required." 

674.  Much  is  an  adjective, 

When  it  is  joined  to  nouns ;  as,  "  Much  labour  fatigues  us." 

675.  Much  is  an  adverb. 

When  it  qualifies  the  same  parts  of  speech  that  the  adverb  does ;  as, 
"  Thou  art  much  mightier  than  I." 

676.  More  is  a  noun. 

When  it  implies  quantity;  as,  "The  more  we  have,  the  more  wa 
want." 

When  is  ye«  a  conjunction  ?  663.  Give  When  an  interjection?  670.  Give  an 
an  example.     Wlien  an  adverb?   663.      example. 

^  whTn  to^™'n^;,.r,iM«.tj^n  7  CCA   r.rc  When  is  then  a  conjunction  ?  671.  Give 

n^^i"'^-^    wh?n''?.rl^"\  n^7^  ^^  example.     When  an  adverb?   672. 

Give  an  elcam JTe           P-^^P^^^'^^"  ^  ^^^^  Give  an  example. 

When  is  what  a  compound  relative?  When  is  much  a  noun?  673.  ^ive  an 

666.    Give  an  example.    When  an  inter-  example.  When  an  adjective?  6/4.  Give 

rogative  relative  pronoun?  667.  Give  an  an  example.      When  an  adverb ?    675. 

example.    When  an  adjective  pronoun  ?.  Give  an  example. 

66a    Give  an  example.    When  a  com-  When  is  more  a  noun  ?  676.    Give  an 

pound  propoun  ?  669.    Give  an  example,  example. 


EXERCISES. 


Ill 


677.  More  and  most  are  adjectives^ 

When  they  qualify  a  noun;  as,  '*  The  more  joy  I  have,  the  more 
sorrow  I  expect;  "Most  men  are  mistaken  in  their  pursuit  of  hap- 
piness." 

678.  More  and  most  are  adverbs^ 

When  used  in  comparison  ;  as,  **  This  boy  is  more  obedient  than  that;" 
**  The  soil  of  Cuba  is  most  fertile." 


679. 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 


'  They  perfume  their  garments." 
^  A  perfume  is  a  sweet  odor." 
'They   rise    early    in    the    morn- 

'  A  rise  sometimes  signifies  the  be- 
ginning." 

'Rufus  speaks  the  language  of 
truth." 

'  James  performed  his  part  well." 

'  A  well  is  a  fountain  of  water." 

*  A  well  man  is  one  who  enjoys  his 

health." 
*We  frequently  walk  in   the  gar- 
den." 

*  The  Jews  fast  often." 

*  He  walks  very  fast." 

*  The  refuse  signifies  the  worthless 

remains." 
'  Desert  not  a  friend." 

*  Joseph's  brethren  came  and  bowed 

down  before  him." 

*  William  went  after  his  slate." 


"  His  elder  brethren  came  before 
Benjamin  did." 

"  John  left  after  William  came." 

"  Evil  communications  corrupt  good 
manners." 

"  Corrupt  conversation  is  very  fool- 
ish." 

"  A  walk  in  the  fields  in  the  sum- 
mer season  is  delightful." 

"A  true  fast  is  abstaining  from 
iniquity." 

"  Sin  is  a  moral  evil,  and  the  cause 
'  of  natural  evils." 

"  Protest  not  rashly,  lest  thou  have 
to  repent  of  it." 

"  A  protest  is  a  solemn  declaration 
against  a  thing." 

"  Do  nothing  rashly,  lest  thou  pre- 
cipitate thyself  into  inextricable 
difficulty." 

"  Hasty  promises  are  seldom  kept." 


2. 


"The  man  that  I  saw,  was  ex- 
ecuted." 

"  That  man  that  you  met  yesterday 
in  the  street,  was  taken  and 
sent  to  Boston,  that  he  might 
have  an  impartial  trial." 

"We  assisted  him  both  for  your 
sake  and  our  own." 


'  Did  you  hear   the   report  of  the 

cannon  then  ?" 
'Where  much  is  given,  much  will 

be  required." 
'  Future  time  is  yet  to  come." 
'  He    trusted    him,   /or    he    knew 

that     he    would     not     deceive 

him." 


When  are  more  and  most  adjectives? 
f)??.  Give  examples  of  each.  When  ad- 
verbs? 678.    Give  examples  of  each. 

Wliat  is  number!  5.  What  does  the 
sinjfular  number  denote?  8.  What  the 
plural?  10. 

What  nouns  have  the  singular  form 
only?  324.  What  the  plural  ?  325.  What 
are  the  same  in  both  numbers?  ;?26. 

How  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns 
generally  formed  ?  327. 

When  nouns  end  in  ch,  sh,  &c.,  how  do 
thev  form  the  plural  ?  328. 

How  do  those  endinjr  in/or/c?  329. 

How  is  the  plural  formed,  when  the 
singular  ends  in  ?/,  with  no  other  vowel 
in  the  same  syllable  ?  330. 

What  is  case  ?  333.  The  nominative 
case?  335.  .Possessive  case?  337.    How 


formed  ?  338.  How  formed  when  the  sin- 
gular ends  in  ss  ?  341. 

What  does  the  objective  case  express  ? 
343. 

Will  you  decline  man?  book?  345. 
chair?  345. 

Will  you  parse  the  promiscuous  exer- 
cises ? 

What  is  an  adjective?  363.  What 
does  the  positive  state  express?  365. 
Comparative?  366.  Superlative?  367. 
How  is  the  comparative  formed  in  mono- 
syllables? .369.  How  in  more  syllables 
than  one  ?  370. 

How  do  you  compare  the  following  ad- 
jecti  ves  ?  —  ffood  ?  bad  ?  wise  ?  little  ? 
small?    virtuous?   many?   old?    115. 

When  does  an  adjective  become  a  noun 
in  parsing?  378. 


112 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


'  Both  the  men  are  guilty." 
'Although  he  reproves  me,  yet  I 

esteem  him." 
'  All  but  John  came." 
'  This  is  but  doing  our  duty." 
*He  called  me,  but  I  refused   to 

go-" 
'  Let  such  as  hear  take  heed." 
'  He  did  as  I  directed  him." 
*You  may  take  either  the  one  or 

the  other." 
'Either  road  will  conduct  you  to 

the  right  place." 
'  If  he  has  commanded  it,  then  I 

must  obey." 


"  He  works  for  me." 
"  He  refused  what  was  sent  him.** 
"  What  strange  things  he  saw  !" 
"In  what  manner  he  succeeded  is 

unknown  to  me." 
"  What !  will  you  take  my  life  ?** 
"  The  more  we  have,  the  more  we 

want." 
"The  more  joy  I  have,  the  more 

sorrow  I  expect." 
"  The  most  dutiful  children  are  the 

happiest  children." 
"  Much  labor  fatigues  me." 
"Thou  art  much  mightier  than  I 

aijp." 


"Susan  is  determined  to  learn." 

"  By  framing  excuses  he  prolonged 
his  stay." 

"The  man  who  is  faithfully  at- 
tached to  religion  may  be  relied 
on  with  confidence." 

"  James,  do  visit  me." 


"  Virtue  and  vice  are  opposites.** 
"  When   John's   father   asked   him 
•  that  question,  he  heard  him,  but 
refused  to  answer  him." 
"  The  wall  is  sixty  feet  high." 
"  To  meet  our  friends  after  a  long 
absence  affords  us  much  joy." 


LXV.    CONTRACTIONS. 


Of  the  Auxiliary  Have,  also  of  Had. 


'  They  've  forsaken  him." 

'  I  *d  gone  when  you  came." 

'  They  'd  just  returned  from  town." 


"  I  've  satisfied  myself.'*- 
"They'd   determined   to    let   him 
go." 


681. 


0/WiLL  and  Would. 


'  I  '11  finish  my  work  first." 
'They'd  sing  songs  till  midnight, 
if  they  were  urged." 


"He  is  still  determined  that  he'll 

not  forbear." 
"  He  '11  at  last  mind  me." 


Will  you  name  a  few  adjectives  which 
have  in  themselves  a  superlative  signifi- 
cation  ?  374; 

What  is  a  pronoun  ?  381.  A  personal 
pronoun  ?  382.  Why  called  personal  ? 
382. 

How  many  persons  have  pronouns  in 
each  number?  383.  How  many  num- 
bers ?  384. 

To  which  of  the  pronouns  is  gender  ap- 
plied? 382. 

How  many  cases  have  pronouns  ?  384» 

Will  you  decline  J?  tkou?  he?  she? 
m   127. 

What  kind  of  a  pronoun  is  myself?  386. 
How  formed  ?  386. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  7  409. 
Why  called  relative  ?  40S. 

What  is  said  of  the  relative  what?  429. 

How  ought  who  to  be  applied?   412. 


How  which?  413.  How  may  that  be 
used?  415. 

When  are  pronouns  called  interroga- 
tive? 431 

What  are  adjective  pronouns?  390. 
How  many  kinds  of  adjective  pronouns 
are  there  ?  391. 

Which  are  the  demonstrative?  398. 
Why  so  called  ?  398.  The  distributive  ? 
393.  Why  so  called  ?  393.  The  indefi- 
nite ?  402.    Why  so  called  ?  401. 

To  what  do  this  and  that  refer  7  400. 

Will  you  decline  one?  404.  other 7 
403 

What  is  the  rule  by  which  pronouns 
agree  with  their  antecedents?  V. 

Which  words  in  sentences  are  antece- 
dents? 420. 

What  are  subsequents?  431. 

Will  you  parse  t.^le  ciercises  marked  2? 


CONTRACTIONS.  113 

682.  Of  Am  and  Is. 

"  That  man's  rich."  "'Tis   strange   that   she  will  not 

"  'T  is  true  she 's  dead."  regard   the  kind  assistance  of 

"  I  'm  sorry  that  you  have  misspent  her  friend." 

your  time." 

683.  Of  Cannot  and  Will  not. 

"  He  can't  endure  such  afflictions."      "  He  won't  disobey  me." 
"  You    can't    be    absent    at    such     "  You    won't    mistake    the    direc- 
times."  *  tion." 

684.  Omissions  of  the  Principal  Verb  after  an  Interrogative 

Sentence. 

"Who  will  assist  me?"  "John"  "What  will  make  me  respectable 
[will  assist  me].  and  happy  ?"  "  Virtue." 

"  What  sent  our  forefathers  to  this  "  Who  taught  him  grammar  ?" 
country?"  "  The  love  of  liberty."  "  Mr.  Williams." 

685.  Omissions  of  the  Principal  Verb  after  an  Auxiliary. 

*♦  Stephen  will  go  if  John  will"  "  He  received  me  in  the  same  man- 
[go] .  ner  that  I  would  you." 

"  Susan  shall  walk,  but  John  shall  "  I  will  do  it  as  soon  as  I  can." 

not"  "The  work   is   not  completed,  but 

**  I  have  recited ;  have  you  ?" ,  soon  will  be." 

686.  Omissions  of  the  Principal  Verb  after  Than  and  As. 

"Thomas  is  a  better  scholar  than  "Johnson  is  richer  than  James." 

William"  [is].  "  Susan    is    not     so    beautiful     as 

"He  was   more  beloved  than  Cin-  Mary." 

thia,    but    not    so    much     ad-  "She   is    more    playful    than    her 
mired."  brother." 

687.  Omissions  of  the  Verb  To  be. 

**  Sweet  the  pleasure,  rich  the  trea-     "  Delightful  task,  to  rear  the  tender 

sure."  thought, 

"A  child  of  freedom  thou."  To  teach   the  young  idea  how  to 

"  Sweet  the  music  of  birds."  shoot." 
"  Dear  the  schoolboy's  sport." 

What  is  a  verb ?  438.  tivo?  472.     Subjunctive?   456.    Infini- 

What  is  an  active  verb?  439.  live  ?  479. 

When  is   an   active  verb  transitive?  What  are  participles?  498.    How  may 

440.    When  intransitive  ?  441.  the  participles  in   ing  be  distinguished 

What  is  a  passive  verb?  444.    How  from  other  words  of  like  termination? 

formed  ?  510.  500. 

How  may  a  transitive  verb  be  known  ?  How  many,  and  which  are  the  partici- 

154.  pies  ?|    What  does  the  present  express  ? 

How  an  intransitive?  154.  500.    Perfect ?  502.    Compound  perfect? 

What  is  a  neuter  verb?  450.  504. 

Willyounext  take  the  exercises  mark-  LXV.    Will  you  next  parse  the  con- 
ed 3?  tractions?  680. 

What  belong  to  verbs  ?*  What  is  tense  ?  494.    What  is  the  pre- 

Howmany  numbers  have  they?    How  sent  used  for?  482.  The  perfect  ?  Imper- 

many  persons?!  feet?  488.      Pluperftct  ?  491.     First  fu- 

What  is  mood?  451.    How  many  are  ture?  41)2.    Second  future?  493. 

there  ?  481.    Will  you  name  them?  Under  what  circumstances  do  we  use 

What  is  the  indicative  mood  used  for?  the  present  tense  to  denote  the  relative 

452.    The  potential  ?  453.    The  impera-  time  of  a  future  action  ?  484. 

*  Mood,  tense,  number  and  person.       t  Three.       J  Three  —  the  present,  perfect,  and  compound  perfect. 


114 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


688.  Omissions  of  Mam,  Might,  Could,  Would,  and  Should. 
"Live  long  and  be  happy."  "He   might  not  weep,  nor  laugh, 
"  Who  will  entreat  the  Lord  that  he  nor  sing." 

spare  our  lives  ?"  "  Should  I  forgive  you,  and   allow 

"  I  could  not  think,  nor  speak,  nor  you   to   depart,  you  would  not 

hear."  reform." 

689.  Omissions  of  the  Conjunction  before  the  Verb  in  the  Sub- 

junctive Mood, 


"  If  he  will  repent  and  reform,  I 
will  assist  him." 

"  Unless  good  order  be  restored,  and 
the  former  officers  be  re-elected, 
there  will  be  an  end  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice." 


"Had  I  improved  my  time  as  I 
ought  to  have  done,  I  should 
have  been  well  qualified  for 
business." 

"  Were  there  no  alternative,  I  would 
not  do  that." 


690.  Omissions  of  For  after  Verb,  implying  the  idea  of  serving. 


"  Make  me  a  pen." 

"  Order  me  a  carriage." 


'  Bring  me  some  water." 
'  Purchase  him  a  knife." 


"  Sweet   child  !    lovely   child  ! 

parents  are  no  more." 
"  Sweet   blossom !  precious   to   my 

heart." 


Omissions  of  the  Interjection, 
thy 


"  Thou  Preserver  and  Creator  of  all 

mankind." 
"  My  beloved  Ulrica !  hast  thou,  too, 

forgotten  me  ?" 

692.  Omissions  of  the  Relative. 

"  Several  men  are  there  come  from     "  I  trust  that  he  I  desire  to  see  so 
Europe."  muchi^ill^peedily  return.' 


I.XVI.  inver: 

The  Nominative 


••  Smack  went'the  whip,  round 

the  wheels ; 
Wejpe  ever  folks  so  glat 


*'^ere^  goes   a  man  alike  ^istin* ':;:'_  j^olden  hair." 


after  the  Verb, 
guished   for   his   learning   and 
^        politeness."  ^.^''"" 

"And   in   soft  ringlets  waved'^er 


In  what  sort  of  dftsoriptions  do  we  use 
the  present.ibrtT]e  pasV  tense  ?  486. 

What  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb?  531. 

What  is  the  conjugation  of  an  active 
verb  styled?  532.     A  passive  verb?  532. 

How  many  tenses  lias  the  indicative  ? 
.."625.  Potential  ?  527.  Subjunctive  ?  526. 
Imperative?  529.    Infinitive?  .528. 

What  is  the  sign  of  the  present  indica- 
tive? 519.  The  imperfect  ?  520.  .fer- 
^'Ifect?  521.  Pluperfect?  522.  Firslftir 
ture  ?  523.  Second  future  ?  524.  The 
potential  mood?  515.  Infinitive  ?  517. 
Subjunctive?  516.  How  many  persons 
^as  the  imperative  ?  518.  How  many 
fepses?  529.  How  many  forms  h^s  the 
Bubjunjctiye  moQ4?^^l-'"Tft'"What  d^.they 


W^ill  you   now  parse  the  omissions? 
684,  &c. 

How  is  the  passive  verb  formed  ?  510. 

Will  yskudecline  love  in  the  indicative 
present,  passive-?  and  the  verb  to  be  in  the 
imperfect?  Perfect?  Pluperfect?  First 
future?  Second  future?  Present  poten- 
tial? Imperfect?  Perfect?  Pluperfect? 
Present  subjunctive, common  form?  Im- 
perfect? Perfect?  Pluperfect?  First  fu- 
ture  ?  Second  future  ? 
■-  |n  what  voice,  mood,  tense,  number  and 
per'gOij^  is,  "  I  love  ?"  "  We  love  ?"  "  They 
are  loved  ?"  "  You  are  ?"  "  I  did  learn  ?" 
"John  was, instructed?"  "He  was?" 
♦'They  have  "Returned  ?"  "Have  they 
gone?"  "They  hdVe  been  ?"  "  I  had 
had?"  "They  had  been  distinguished?" 


SENTENCES   TRANSPOSED.  115 

694.  The  Objective  Case  before  the  Verb, 

**  Tyrants  no  more  their  savage  na-     "  Me  glory  summons  to  the  martial 

ture  kept,  scene." 

And  foes  to  virtue  wondered  how     "  The  rolls  of  fame  I  will  not  now 

they  wept."  explore." 

695.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  a  sentence  exemplifying  Rule  VIIT.  ?  One,  Rule 
IX.?  X.?  XL?  XII.?  XIII.?  XIV.?  Will  you  compose  a  sentence  on 
the  use  of  the  dog  ?  One,  on  the  clouds  ?  One,  on  night  ?  One,  on  wind  1 
One,  on  snow  ?  One,  on  hail  ?  One,  on  ice?  One,  on  skating  ?  One,  on 
fishing  ?  One,  on  courage  ?  One,  on  cowardice  ?  One,  on  flial  duty  1 
'  One,  on  indolence  ?    One,  on  schools  7 

696.  SENTENCES  TRANSPOSED. 
"  Here  rests  his  liead  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 

A  youth,  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown." 

Transposed, 

**  A  youth,  unknown  to  fortune  and  to  fame,  rests  here  his  head  upon 
the  lap  of  earth." 

"  When,  young,  life's  journey  I  began. 

The  glittering  prospect  charmed  my  eyes ; 
I  saw  along  the  extended  plain, 

Joy  after  joy  successive  rise  : 
But  soon  I  found  'twas  all  a  dream. 

And  learned  the  fond  pursuit  to  shun, 
Where  few  can  reach  the  purposed  aim, 

And  thousands  daily  are  undone." 

Transposed. 
"  I  began  life's  journey  when  young,  and  the  glittering  prospect 
charmed  my  eyes;  I  saw  joy  after  joy  successive  rise,  along  the  ex- 
tended plain :  but  soon  I  found  it  was  all  a  dream  ;  and  learned  to  shun 
the  fond  pursuit,  where  few  can  reach  the  purposed  aim,  and  thousands 
are  daily  undone." 

"  Needful  austerities  our  wills  restrain, 
As  thorns  fence  in  the  tender  plant  from  harm.'* 

Transposed, 

"  Needful  austerities  restrain  our  wills,  as  thorns  fence  in  the  tender 
plant  from  harm." 

•'Thou  hadst  been"?   "You  shall  be         Will  you  give  the  synopis  o{  desire  in 

taught"?  "Shall  I  be  punished''?  "He  the  active  voice,  with  the  participles? 

shall  have  been"  ?  Of  the  same  in  the  passive  ?  Of  do  in  the 

LXVI.    Will  you  parse  the  inverted  active?   In  the  passive? 
sentences?  693,  &c.  When  is  a  verb  called  regular?  533. 

In  what  voice,  mood,  tense,  number  and  When  irregular  ?  534. 
person,  is  "  Love  thou"  ?    "  I  may  go"  ?         Will  you  repeat  the  present  and  imper. 

"  You  may  be  regarded"  ?  "  You  might  feet  tenses,  also   the  perfect  participle, 

be  rejoiced"?   "She  may  have  been  re-  of  am?    see?   hear?    do?   weep?   sink? 

fused"  ?    "  We  should  have  been"  ?   "  If  swim  ? 

I  have"?    "  If  thou  have"?    "  If  thou         Will  you  next  take  the  sentences  to  be 

hast"  ?   "  To  have"  ?   "  To  have  been"  ?  written  ? 

Will   you   give  the  synopis  of  learn^         What  are  auxiliary  verbs?  511. 
through  all  the  moods,  tenses,  «fec.,  in  the         How  many  and  which  are  they  ?  512. 
first    person,  including   the    participle?         What  are  defective  verbs ?    579. 
Learn,  in  like  manner,  in  the  passive?         What  is  an  adverb?   588.     Why  so 

The  verb  to  be  in  the  same  manner  ?  called  ?  228. 


116  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies, 
Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires : 

E'en  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  nature  cries, 
E'en  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires." 

Transposed. 
**  The  parting  soul  relies  on  some  fond  breast ;  the  closing  eye  requires 
some  pious  drops ;  the  voice  of  nature  cries   even  from  the  tomb ;  and 
their  wonted  fires  live  even  in  our  ashes." 

"  From  lofty  themes,  from  thoughts  that  soared  on  high 
And  opened  wondrous  scenes  above  the  sky. 
My  Muse  !  descend ;  indulge  my  fond  desire ; 
With  softer  thoughts  my  melting  soul  inspire, 
And  smooth  my  numbers  to  a  female's  praise; 
A  partial  world  will  listen  to  my  lays, 
While  Anna  reigns,  and  sets  a  female  name 
Unrivalled  in  the  glorious  lists  of  fame." 

•  Transposed, 

"  O  my  Muse  I  descend  thou  from  lofty  themes,  and  from  thoughts  that 
soared  on  high,  and  opened  wondrous  scenes  above  the  sky ;  indulge  thou 
my  fond  desire  ;  and  do  thou  inspire  my  melting  soul  with  softer  thoughts, 
and  smooth  my  numbers  to  a  female's  praise ;  a  partial  world  will  listen 
to  my  lays,  while  Anna  reigns,  and  sets  a  female  name  unrivalled  in  the 
glorious  lists  of  fame." 

In  what  manner  are  adverbs  compared?  What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of 

236,234.  nouus?    XV.     Articles?    II.,  III.      Ad- 

Whal  are  the  phrases  which  do  the  of-  jectives  ?    IV.     Pronouns  ?    V.    Verbs  ? 

fice  of  adverbs  called  ?  589.  VII.    Particinles  ?  XIII,    Agreement  of 

Will  you  name  a  few?  589.  a  verb  plural  with  two  nouns  singular? 

What  is  a  preposition  ?  595.  XVIII.    Adjective  pronouns  and  numer- 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  preposi-  als  ?  Note  1. 

tions  ?  247.  What  is  the  rule  by  which  a  verb  agrees 

What  is   a  conjunction?    602.     Con-  with  a  noun  of  multitude,  or  collective 

junction  copulative  ?  2G5.    Why  so  call-  noun  ?  Note  XVI.   Rule  for  the  objective 

ed?  264.    Conjunction  disjunctive  ?  274.  case  after  a  transitive  verb?  VI [I. 

Why  so  called?  271.                •  What  is  the  rule  for  the  objective  case 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  copulative  after  a  preposition  ?  X.     After  a  partici- 

conjunctions?   266.    Of  disjunctive  con-  pie?    XIV.      Rule  for  the  adverb?    IX. 

junctions?  275.  Rule  respecting  the  interjections  O!  oh! 

What  is  an  interjection?  607.    Why  aA/&c.?    Note  X. 

80  called?  283.    Mention  a  few?  285.  Will  you  parse  the  sentences  marked 

What  is  syntax ?  296.    What  is  a  sen*  transposed? 
tence  ?  252.    A  simple  sentence  ?  253. 


GENERAL    OBSERYATIONS. 


SYNTAX. 

That  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  fonmation  and  sound 
of  the  letters,  the  combination  of  letters  into  syllables,  and  syllables 
into  words,  is  called  Orthography. 

That  part  which  treats  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their  vari- 
ous changes  and  their  derivations,  is  called  Etymology. 

That  part  which  treats  of  the  union  and  right  order  of  words  in 
the  formation  of  sentences,  is  called  Syntax. 

Grammar  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two  species, 
Universal  and  Particular.  Universal  Grammar  explains  the 
principles  which  are  common  to  all  languages.  Particular 
Grammar  applies  those  principles  to  a  particular  language,  modi- 
fying them  according  to  the  genius  of  that  tongue,  and  the 
established  practice  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  by  whom  it 
is  used. 

Language,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  signifies  the  expres- 
sion of  our  ideas,  and  their  various  relations,  by  certain  articulate 
sounds,  which  are  used  as  the  signs  of  those  ideas  and  relations. 
An  articulate  sound  is  the  sound  of  the  Human  voice,  formed  by  the 
organs  of  speech. 

Letters  are  the  representatives  of  certain  articulate  sounds,  the 
elements  of  the  language. 

The  letters  of  the  English  Language,  called  the  English  Alphabet, 
are  twenty-six  in  number,  each  of  which  constitutes  the  first  prin- 
ciple, or  least  part  of  a  word. 

Letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 

A  vowel  is  a  letter  that  can  be  perfectly  sounded  by  itself.  The 
vowels  are  a,  e,  t,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y,  W  and  y  are  con- 
sonants when  they  begin  a  word  or  syllable;  but  in  every  other 
situation  they  are  vowels. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  that  cannot  be  perfectly  sounded  without 
the  aid  of  a  vowel ;  as,  6,  d,  /,  Z.  All  letters  except  the  vowels  are 
consonants. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi-vowels. 

The  mutes  cannot  be  sounded  at  all,  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel. 
They  are  b,  p,  t,  <?,  k,  and  c  and  g  hard. 

(im 


118  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  semi-vowels  have  an  imperfect  sound  of  themselves.  They 
are  /,  Z,  m,  n,  r,  v,  s,  z,  a?,  and  c  and  g  soft. 

Four  of  the  semi-vowels,  namely,  Z,  m,  w,  r,  are  called  liquids, 
because  they  readily  unite  with  other  consonants,  and  flow,  as  it 
were,  into  their  sounds. 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels,  pronounced  by  a  single 
impulse  of  the  voice ;  as,  oi  in  voice,  ou  in  ounce, 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels,  pronounced  in  like 
manner;  as,  eau  in  beau,  iew  in  view, 

A  proper  diphthong  is  that  in  which  both  the  vowels  are  sounded; 
as,  oi  in  voice,  ou  in  ounce. 

An  improper  diphthong  has.  but  one  of  the  vowels  sounded ;  as,  ea 
in  eagle,  oa  in  boat, 

A  Syllable  is  a  sound,  either  simple  or  compounded,  uttered  by 
a  single  impulse  of  the  voice,  and  constituting  a  word  or  part  of  a 
word  ;  as,  «,  an,  ant. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  Monosyllable;  a  word  of  two 
syllables,  a  Dissyllable;  a  word  of  three  syllables,  a  Trisyllable;  a 
word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  Polysyllable. 

Words  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  common  consent  as  signs  of 
our  ideas. 

Words  are  of  two  sorts,  primitive  and  derivative. 

A  primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  simpler 
word  in  the  language  ;  as,  man,  good, 

A  derivative  word  is  that  which  may  be  reduced  to  a  simpler 
word ;  as,  manful,  goodness. 

The  elementary  sounds,  under  their  smallest  combination,  produce 
a  syllable;  syllables,  properly  combined,  produce  a  word;  words, 
duly  combined,  produce  a  sentence;  and  sentences,  properly  com- 
.  bined,  produce  an  oration,  or  discourse, 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  forming  complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  has  in  it  but  one  subject,  and  one  finite*  verb ; 
as,  "  Life  is  short." 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  sentences 
connected  together ;  as,  "  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long." 

As  sentences  themselves  are  divided  into  simple  and  compound,  so  the 
members  of  sentences  may  be  divided  likewise  into  simple  and  compound 
members  ;  for  whole  sentences,  whether  simple  or  compound,  may  become 
members  of  other  sentences,  by  means  of  some  additional  connection  ;  as 
in  the  following  example  :  **  The  ox  knoweth  his  owner,  and  the  ass  his 
master's  crib  ;  but  Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  doth  not  consider." 
This  sentence  consists  of  two  compounded  members,  each  of  which  is 
subdivided  into  two  simple  members,  which  are  properly  called  clauses. 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together,  making 
sometimes  a  part  of  a  sentence,  and  sometimes  a  whole  sen- 
tence. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  are  the  subject,  the 
attribute,  and  the  object. 

*  Finite  verbs  arc  those  to  which  number  and  person  appertain.  Verbs  in  the 
infinitive  mood  have  no  respect  to  number  and  person. 


SYNTAX.  119 

The  subject  is  the  things  chiefly  spolfen  of;  the  attribute  is  the 
thin^  or  action  affirmed  or  denied  of  it;  and  the  object  is  the  thing 
affected  by  such  action. 

The  nominative  case  denotes  the  subject;  and  usually  goes  before 
the  verb  or  attribute ;  and  the  word  or  phrase  denoting  the  object, 
follows  the  verb;  as,  "A  wise  man  governs  his  passions."  Here  a 
wise  man  is  the  subject;  governs^  the  attribute  or  thing  affirmed ; 
and  his  passions^  the  object. 

Syntax  principally  consists  of  two  parts.  Concord  and  Govern- 
ment. Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has  with  another 
in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person.  Government  is  that  power 
which  one  part  of  speech  has  over  another,  in  directing  its  mood, 
tense,  or  case. 

What  is  Orthography?  Etymology?  Syntax?  How  many  kinds  of 
grammar  are  there  ?  What  are  they  ?  What  is  universal  grammar  ?  Par- 
ticular grammar  ?  What  is  language  ?  What  is  an  articulate  sound  ?  What 
are  letters  ?  What  are  the  letters  of  the  English  language  called  ?  What 
does  each  constitute  ?  How  are  letters  divided  ?  What  is  a  vowel  ?  Which 
are  they  ?  How  many  do  they  make  ?  When  are  to  and  y  consonants  ? 
when  vowels  ?  What  is  a  consonant  ?  Give  an  example.  Which  letters  are 
consonants  ?  How  are  the  consonants  divided  ?  What  is  a  mute  ?  Which 
are  they  ?  What  is  a  semi- vowel  ?  Which  are  they  ?  Which  of  the  semi- 
vowels are  called  liquids,  and  why  ?  What  is  a  diphthong  ?  Give  an  exam- 
ple. What  is  a  triphthong  ?  Give  an  example;  What  is  a  proper  diphthong  ? 
Give  an  example.  What  is  an  improper  diphthong?  Give  an  example. 
What  is  a  syllable?  monosyllable?  dissyllable?  trisyllable?  polysyllable? 
What  are  wotds  ?  Of  how  many  sorts  are  they  ?  What  is  a  primitive  word  ? 
Give  an  example.  What  is  a  derivative  word  ?  Give  an  example.  What 
does  an  elementary  sound  produce  ?  What  do  syllables  produce  ?  Words  ? 
Sentences  ?  What  is  a  sentence  ?  How  are  sentences  divided  ?  What  is  a 
simple  sentence  ?  Compound  sentence  ?  Give  an  example  of  each.  How 
are  the  members  of  sentences  divided  ?  Give  an  example.  What  is  a  phrase  t 
What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  ?  What  is  the  subject  ?  the 
attribute  ?  the  object?  What  does  the  nominative  case  denote  ?  and  where 
is  it  usually  placed  in  a  sentence  ?  Give  an  example.  Of  how  many  parts 
does  Syntax  consist  ?    What  are  they  ?    What  is  concord  ?    Government  ? 

The  right  construction  of  sentences  may  perhaps  be 
best  learned  by  correcting  examples  of  wrong  construc- 
tion. Exercises  in  false  syntax  for  the  pupil,  assisted  by 
rules  and  notes  to  parse  and  correct,  will  therefore  now 
be  given. 

The  following  contain  all  the  notes  and  observations 
in  Murray's  large  Grammar,  together  with  all  his  ex- 
ercises in  false  syntax. 

RUI.Z3  VII- 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar. 
RULE  I. 

A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in  number 
and  person. 

The  following  are  a  few  instances  of  the  violation  of  this  rule :  *'  What 
unifies  good  opinions,   when  our  practice  is  bad?"  /'what  signify.'' 


120 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


"There's  two  or  three  of  us,  who  have  seen  the  work;"  "there  are.''^ 
"We  may  suppose  there  was  more  impostors  than  one;'*  "there  were 
more."  "  I  have  considered  what  have  been  said  on  both  sides  in  this  con- 
troversy ;"  "  what  has  been  said."  "  If  thou  would  be  healthy,  live  tem- 
perately;" "  if  thou  TiJowZ^s^"  "Thou  sees  how  Httle  has  been  done  ;" 
"  thou  seesty  "  Though  thou  cannot  do  much  for  the  cause,  thou  may  and 
should  do  something;"  *' canst  not,  mayst,  and  shouldst.^^  "  Full  many  a 
flower  are  born  to  blush  unseen  ;"  ''is  born."  "  A  conformity  of  inclina- 
tions and  qualities  prepare  us  for  friendship  ;"  ''prepares  us."  "A  variety 
of  blessings-have  been  conferred  upon  us;"  "has  been."  "  In  piety  and 
virtue  consist  the  happiness  of  man;"  " consist s.^^  "To  these  precepts 
are  subjoined  a  copious  selection  of  rules  and  maxims;"  "  is  subjoined." 

"  If  thou  would  be  healthy,  live  temperately."  Which  word  is  wrong  in 
this  example  ?  In  what  particular,  wrong  ?  Why  ?  What  is  the  Rule  for 
it?  How,  then,  would  you  correct  the  example  ? — "  There  was  more  equi 
vocators."  Which  word  is  wrong  here  ?  What  correction  should  be  made  ! 
Why? 

^fCrThe  pupil  is  first  to  answer  the  questions  on  each  Bule  or  Note,  then  tt 
correct  and  parse  the  subsequent  exercises!  It  is  suggested  to  the  teacher,  thai 
the  pupils  should  direct  their  attention  first  to  the  Rules  and  exercises  undei 
them,  exclusively,  omitting  the  Notes,  (J-c,  for  a  review,  when  all  may  bt 
taken  in  course. 


'  Disappointments  sinks  the  heart 
of  man ;  but  the  renewal  of 
hope  give  consolation." 

'  The  smiles  that  (1.)  encourage 
severity  of  judgment  hides  ma- 
lice and  insincerity." 

'  He  dare  not  act  (2.)  contrary  (3.) 
to  his  instructions.^ 

'  Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  contains 
forty  pounds  of  flour." 

'  The  mechanism  of  clocks  and 
watches  were  totally  unknown 
(4.)  a  few  centuries  ago."  (5.) 

'  The  number  of  inhabitants  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  do 
not  exceed  sixteen  millions." 

*  Nothing  (6.)  but  vain  and  fool- 
ish pursuits  (7.)  delight  some 
persons." 

*A  variety  of  pleasing  objects 
charm  the  eye." 

'So  (8.)  much  (9.)  both  (10.)  of 
ability  and  merit  (11.)  are  sel- 
dom (12.)  found." 

'In  the  conduct  of  Parmenio  a 
mixture  of  wisdom  and  folly 
(11.)  were  very  (8.)  conspicu- 
ous." 

'He   is  an  author   (13.)   of  more 


credit  than  Plutarch,  (14.)  oi 
any  other  (15^)  that  (11.)  writ 
lives  too  (12.)  hastily." 

"The  inquisitive  (16.)  and  cu- 
rious (11.)  is  generally  talka* 
tive."  (17.) 

"  Great  pains  has  been  taken  to  re- 
concile  the  parties." 

"The  sin<}ere  (16.)  is  always  es- 
teemed." 

"  Has  the  goods  been  sold  to  ad- 
vantage  ?  and  did  thou  embrace 
the  proper  season  ?" 

"There  is  many  occasions  (6.)  in 
life,  in  which  silence  and  sim- 
plicity (11.)  is  true  wisdom." 

"The  generous  (16.)  never  re- 
counts minutely  the  actions 
they  have  done ;  nor  the  pru- 
dent, (7.)  those  (15.) .  they  will 
do." 

"He  need  not  proceed  (2.) in  such 
haste." 

"The  business  that  (1.)  related  to 
ecclesiastical  meetings,  mat- 
ters (11.)  and  persons,  (11.) 
were  to  be  ordered  accord- 
ing (18.)  to  the  king's  direc- 
tion." 


m  See  650.         ..,...,„    ,„.,  ,    , 

XIII.        (5.)  A  few  centuries  ago — an  adverbial  phrase,  589;  or  apply  Note  XVIII. 


f2.)  Apply  Rule  XII.    See  480. 


648,  to  centuries,  and  Rule  IX.  to  ago.        (6.)  Rule  VL 
(9.)  673.         (10.)  661.         (11.)  Rule  XI.  (12.)  Adverb, 

(14.)  "  Plutarch  is."         (15.)  Note  I.  405,  and  Rule  X, 
IV.        (18.)  247. 


(3.)  Adjective. 
"19;  or  apply 
(7.)  Rule  XI. 


(4.)  Rule 


(H.)  239. 
(13.)  Rule  XV.  613. 
(16.)  378.        (17.)  Rul« 


SYNTAX. 


121 


"In  him  were  happily  blended 
true  dignity  with  softness  of 
manners." 

"The  support  of  so  (1.)  many  (2.) 
of  his  relations,  were  a  heavy 
tax  (3.)  upon  his  industry ; 
but  thou  knows  he  paid  it 
cheerfully." 

"What  (4.)  avails  the  best  senti- 
ments (5.)  if  persons  do  not 
live  suitably  to  them  ?" 

"  Not  one  (6.)  of  them  whom  thou 
sees  clothed  (7.)  in  purple,  are 
completely  happy." 

"  And  the  fame  of  this  person, 
and  of  his  wonderful  actions, 
were  diffused  (8.)  throughout 
the  country." 

"The  variety  of  the  productions 
of  genius,  like  (9.)  that  (10.) 
of  the  operations  of  nature,  are 
without  limit." 

"In  vain  (11.)  our  flocks  and  fields 
increase  our  store, 


When  our  abundance  makes  us 
wish  (12.)  for  more." 

"Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour 
as  (13.)  sincerely  as  (14.j  thou 
loves  thyself." 

"  Has  thou  no  better  reason  for  cen- 
suring  (15.)  thy  friend  and  com- 
panion ?"  (16.) 

"Thou,  who  art  the  Author  (17.) 
and  Bestower  (16.)  of  life,  can 
doubtless  restore  it  also ;  but 
whether  thou  will  please  to  re- 
store it,  or  not,  that  thou  only 
knows." 

"  O  thou  my  voice  (18.)  inspire. 

Who  touched  (19.)  Isaiah's  hallow- 
ed lips  with  fire." 

"Accept  (20.)  these  grateful  tears; 
for  thee  they  flow ; 

For  thee,  that  ever  felt  (21.)  an- 
other's woe." 

"  Just  to  thy  word,  in  every  thought 
sincere ; 

Who  knew  (22.)  no  wish  but  what 
the  world  might  hear." 


1.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  is  sometimes  put  as  the 
nominative  case  to  the  verb  ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant ;"  "  To  be 
good  IS  to  be  happy  ;"  "A  desire  to  excel  others  in  learning  and  virtue  is 
commendable;"  "  That  warm  climates  should  accelerate  the  growth  of 
the  human  body,  and  shorten  its  duration,  is  very  reasonable  to  believe  ;" 
**  To  be  temperate  in  eating  and  drinking,  to  use  exercise  in  open  air,  and 
to  preserve  the  mind  free  from  tumultuous  emotions,  are  the  best  preser- 
vatives of  health." 

**  To  see  the  sun  are  pleasant."  Which  word  is  wrong  in  this  example  ? 
In  what  particular,  wrong  ?  What  is  pleasant  ?  What,  then,  is  the  nomina- 
tive case  to  is  ?  Is  there  one  thing,  or  more  than  one,  here  spoken  of,  as  be- 
ing pleasant  ?  Why,  then,  should  we  use  is  in  preference  to  are  ?  What  is 
the  Rule  for  is  ?  (23.)     Rule  for,  "  To  see,''  or,  *'  To  see  the  sun .?"  (24.) 

^iCr  When  examples  are  referred  to  without  being  quoted^  the  teacher  may 
read  them  to  the  pupil. 

**  To  be  temperate  in  eating,"  &c.  How  many  things  are  here  spoken 
of  as  being  the  best  preservatives  ?  Should  we,  then,  use  the  singular  or 
plural  verb  ?     Rule  for  it  ?  (25.) 


"  To  do  unto  all  men,  as  we  would 
that  they,  in  similar  circumstan- 
ces, should  do  unto  us,  constitute 
the  great  principle  of  virtue." 

"From  a  fear  of  the  world's  cen- 


sure, to  be  ashamed  (24.)  of  tho 
practice  of  precepts,  which  the 
heart  approves  and  embraces, 
mark  a  feeble  and  imperfect 
character." 


(1.)  239.  (2.)  378.  (3.)  Rule  XV.  613.  (4.)  Rule  VII?.  (5.)  RuleiVI. 

(6.)  Note  r.  405,  and  Rule  VI.  (7.)  Rule  Xfll.  (8.)  510.  (9.)  Rule  IV 

(10.)  "  that  variety"— '^oie  I.  405,  and  Rule  X.    See  Note  XVII.  647.  (11.)  Ad- 

verbial phrase.  (12.)  Rule  XII.  555.    See  480.  (1.3.)  Adverb.  (14.)  Con 

junction.  (15.)  Participial  noun.  (16.)  Rule  XI.  (17.)  Rule  XV.  613. 

(18.)    Rule  VIII.  (19.)   "Who  touchcdst  or  didst  touch."  (20.)   "Accept 

thou" — imp.  mood.  (21.)  "  didst  feel."  (22.)  "  IVho  knewest  or  didst  know." 

(23.)  Rule  VII.         (24.)  Note  XIII.  626,  or,  Note  1,  this  page.         (25.)  Rule  XVUI. 
11  L 


122  ENGLISH 

"The  erroneous  opinions  which 
we  form  concerning  (1.)  hap- 
piness and  misery  gives  rise 
to  all  the  mistaken  (2.)  and 
dangerous  passions  that  em- 
broils our  life." 

"To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and 
piously,  are  required  of  all 
men." 

•*That  (3.)  it  is  our  duty  to  pro- 
mote the  purity  of  our  minds 
and  bodies,  to  be  just  (4.)  and 
kind  to  our  fellow-creatures, 
and  to  be  pious  and  faithful  to 
Him  that  made  us,  admit  not 
of  any  doubt  in  a  rational  and 
well  (5.)  informed  mind." 

"  To  be  of  a  pure  and  humble 
mind,  to  exercise  benevolence 
towards  others,  to  cultivate 
piety  towards  God,  is  the  sure 
means  (6.)  of  becoming  peace- 
ful and  happy." 

"  It  is  an  important  truth,  that  re- 
ligion, vital  religion,  the  re- 
ligion of  the  heart,  are  the  most 


GRAMMAR. 

powerful  auxiliaries  of  reason, 
in  waging  war  with  the  pas- 
sions, and  promoting  that  sweet 
composure  which  constitute  the 
peace  of  God." 

"The  possession  of  our  senses 
entire,  of  our  limbs  uninjured, 
of  a  sound  understanding,  of 
friends    and    companions,    are 

♦  often  overlooked  ;  though  it 
would  be  the  liltimale  wish  (6.) 
of  many,  who,  as  far  as  we  can 
judge,  deserves  it  as  much  as 
ourselves." 

"  All  (7.)  that  make  a  figure  on  the 
great  theatre  of  the  world,  the 
employments  of  the  busy,  the 
enterprises  of  the  ambitious, 
and  the  exploits  of  the  warlike  ; 
the  virtues  which  forms  the 
happiness,  and  the  crimes  which 
occasions  the  misery  of  man- 
kind; originates  in  that  silent 
and  secret  recess  of  thought, 
which  are  hidden  from  every 
human  eye." 


2.  Every  verb,  except  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  the  participle,  ought  to 
have  a  nominative  case,  either  expressed  or  implied ;  as,  **  Awake ;  arise ;" 
that  is,  "  Awake  ye  ;  arise  ye." 

Wfe  shall  here  add  some  examples  of  inaccuracy,  in  the  use  of  the  verb 
without  its  nominative  case.  **  As  it  hath  pleased  him  of  his  goodness  to 
give  you  safe  deliverance,  and  hath  preserved  you  in  the  great  danger,"  &c. 
The  verb  hath  preserved  has  here  no  nominative  case,  for  it  cannot  be  pro- 
perly supplied  by  the  preceding  word,  him,  which  is  in  the  objective  case. 
It  ought  to  be,  "and  as  he  hath  preserved  you;"  or  rather,  '*and  to  pre- 
serve you."  "  If  the  calm  in  which  he  was  born,  and  lasted  so  long,  had 
continued  ;"  **  and  which  lasted,"  &c.  **  These  we  have  extracted  from 
an  historian  of  undoubted  credit,  and  are  the  same  that  were  practised," 
&c. ;  *'  and  they  are  the  same."  "  A  man  whose  inclinations  led  him  to 
oe  corrupt,  and  had  great  abilities  to  manage  the  business  ;"  **  sindwfio  had," 
&c.  *'  A  cloud  gathering  in  the  north ;  which  we  have  helped  to  raise,  and 
may  quickly  breas  in  a  storm  upon  our  heads  ;"  **  and  which  may  quickly." 

*'As  it  hath  pleased,"  &c.  What  correction  should  be  made  in  this 
example  ?  Why  ?  Recite  the  Note. 


2. 


"  If  the  privileges  to  which  he  has 
an  undoubted  right,  and  he  has 
long  enjoyed,  should  now  be 
wrested  from  him,  (8.)  would 
be  flagrant  injustice." 

"These  curiosities  we  have  im- 
ported   from    China,    and    are 


similar    to    those  which  were 

some   time   ago  brought  from 

Africa." 
"Will   martial   flames   forever  fire 

thy  mind. 
And  never,  never  (9.)  be  to  heaven 

resigned  ?" 


(I.)  Preposition.        (2.)  Rule  XIII.         (3.)  Conjunction.         U-)  "  jnst  persons.^* 
Rule  IV.  (5.)  Adverb.  (6.)  Rule  XV.  (7.)  Note  I.  405,  Rule  VI. 

(8.)  "  it  would"  (9.)  *'  And  wilt  thou  never  be  ?'* 


SYNTAX.  123 

3.  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  absolute,  and  when  an  address 
is  made  to  a  person,  should  belong  to  some  verb,  either  expressed  or  im- 
plied; as,  "Who  wrote  this  book?"  "James;"  that  is,  "  James  wrote 
It."     "  To  whom  thus  Adam,"  that  is,  "  spoke." 

One  or  two  instances  of  the  improper  use  of  the  nominative  case,  without 
any  verb,  expressed.or  implied,  to  answer  it,  may  be  sufficient  to  illustrate 
the  usefulness  of  the  preceding  observations. 

"  Which  rule,  if  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighboring  prince  would  have 
wanted  a  great  deal  of  that  incense  which  had  been  offered  up  to  him."  The 
pronoun  it  is  here  the  nominative  case  to  the  verhTobserved  ;  and  which  rule 
is  left  by  itself,  a  nominative  case  without  any  verb  following  it.  This  form 
of  expression,  though  improper,  is  very  common.  It  ought  to  be,  '^  If  this 
rule  had  been  observed,"  &c.  "Man,  though  he  has  great  variety  of 
thoughts,  and  such  from  which  others  as  well  as  himself  might  receive  pro- 
fit and  delight,  yet  they  are  all  within  his  own  breast."  In  this  sentence, 
the  nominative  man  stands  alone,  and  unconnected  with  any  verb,  either 
expressed  or  implied.     It  should  be,  "  Though  man  has  great  variety,"  &,c. 

"  Which  rule,  if  it,"  «fec.  What  is  the  nominative  case  to  observed  ?  Has 
the  noun  rule  any  verb  following  it,  to  which  it  may  be  the  nominative  case  ? 
Is  this  form  of  expression  much  used  ?  Is  it  not  proper  ?  What  correction 
ehould  be  made  ?    Why  ?    Recite  the  Note. 

3. 

•*(1.)  Two  substantives,  when  they     "Virtue,  however  it  may  be  neg 
come    together,    and     do     not  lected   for   a  time,  men  are  so 

signify    the    same     thing,    the  constituted  as  ultimately  to  ac- 

former   (2.)    must    be    in    the     ..    knowledge  and  respect  genuine 
genitive  case."  merit." 

4.  When  a  verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  either  of  which  may  be  under- 
stood as  the  subject  of  the  affirmation,  it  may  agree  with  either  of  them  ; 
but  some  regard  must  be  had  to  that  which  is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  it, 
as  also  to  that  which  stands  next  to  the  verb  ;  as,  "  His  meat  loas  locusts 
and  wild  honey;"  "  A  great  cause  of  the  low  state  of  industry  twere  the 
restraints  put  upon  it;"  "  The  wages  of  sin  is  death." 

"  The  wages  of  sin  is  death,"  or,  "  Death  is  the  wages  of  sin."  What* 
is  the  nominative  case  to  is  ?  Is  this  nominative,  in  the  first  example,  before 
or  after  is  ?  What  is  the  rule  for  wages  ?  (3.)  Recite  the  Note.  What  do 
you  mean  by  the  subject  of  the  affirmation  ?  (4.) 

4. 
"  The  crown  of  virtue  is  peace  and     "  His  chief  occupation  and  enjoy- 
honor."  ment  were  controversy." 

5.  When  the  nominative  case  has  no  personal  tense  of  a  verb,  but  is  put 
before  a  participle,  independently  on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  called  the 
case  absolute ;  as,  "Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost;"  "That  having 
been  discussed  long  ago,  there  is  no  occasion  to  resume  it." 

As,  in  the  use  of  the  case  absolute,  the  case  is,  in  English,  always  the 
nominative,  the  following  example  is  erroneous,  in  making  it  the  objective. 
"  Solomon  was  of  this  mind  ;  and  I  have  no  doubt  he  made  as  wise  and  true 
proverbs,  as  any  body  has  done  since ;  him  only  excepted,  who  was  a  much 
greater  and  wiser  man  than  Solomon."    It  should  be,  "  Ae  only  excepted." 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  case  absolute  ?  (5.)  "  He  only  excepted."  Which 
word  is  wrong  in  this  example  ?  In  what  particular,  wrong  ?  What  correc- 
tion should  be  made  ? 

(1.)  "  When  two  substantives  come  together.'*  (2.)  *'  the  first  of  them.** 

(3.)  Rule  XV.  613.  (4.)  The  nominative  case.  (5.)  Rule  XVII.  623. 


124  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

5. 

"Him  destroyed,  ,  All  this  (2.)  will  soon  follow." 

Or  won  to  what  (1.)  may  work "Whose  gray  top 

his  utter  loss,  Shall  tremble,  him   descending." 

The  nominative  case  is  commonly  placed  befoJ-e  the  verb  ;  but  sometimes 
it  is  put  after  the  verb,  if  it  is  a  simple  tense ;  and  between  the  auxiliary  and 
the  verb  or  participle,  if  a  compound  tense;  as, 

1st.  When  a  question  is  asked,  a  command  given,  or  a  wish  expressed  ; 
as,  "  Confidest  thou  in  me  ?"  **  Read  thou !"  *'  Mayst  thou  be  happy  !" 
*'  Long  live  the  king !" 

2d.  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  the  conjunction  if;  as,  *'  Were 
it  not  for  this ;"  "  Had  I  been  there." 

3d.  When  a  verb  transitive  is  used;  as,  "On  a  sudden  appeared  the 
king." 

4ih.  When  the  verb  is  preceded  by  the  adverbs  here,  there,  then,  thence, 
hence,  thus,  &c. ;  as,  "Here  am  I;"  "  There  was  he  slain;"  "Then 
cometh  the  end;"  "Thence  ariseth  his  grief;"  "Hence  proceeds  his 
anger;"  "  Thus  was  the  affair  settled." 

5th.  When  a  sentence  depends  on  neither  or  nor,  so  as  to  be  coupled  with 
another  sentence  ;  as,  "  Ye  shall  not  eat  of  it,  neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest 
ye  die." 

Some  grammarians  assert,  the  phrases  as  follows,  as  appears,  form  what 
are  called  impersonal  verbs  ;  and  should,  therefore,  be  confined  to  the  sin- 
gular number;  as,  "The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  as /oZZow;s ;" 
"  The  positions  were  as  appears  incontrovertible  ;"  that  is,  "  as  it  follows," 
"as  it  appears."  If  we  give  (say  they)  the  sentence  a  different  turn,  and, 
instead  of  as,  say  such  as,  the  verb  is  no  longer  termed  impersonal ;  but 
properly  agrees  with  its  nominative,  in  the  plural  number ;  as,  "  The  argu- 
ments advanced  were  nearly  such  as  follow  ;"  "  The  positions  were  such 
as  appear  uncontrovertible."* 

They  who  doubt  the  accuracy  of  Home  Tooke's  statement,  "  That  as, 
however  and  whenever  used  in  English,  means  the  same  as  it,  or  that,  or 
which ;^^  and  who  are  not  satisfied  whether  the  verbs,  in  the  sentence  first 
mentioned,  should  be  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  numher,  may  vary  the 
form  of  expression.  Thus,  the  sense  of  the  preceding  sentences  may  be 
conveyed  in  the  following  terms : — "  The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly 
*  of  the  following  nature  ;"  "  The  following  are  nearly  the  arguments  which 
were  advanced;"  "The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  those  which 
follow;"  "It  appears  that  the  positions  were  incontrovertible;"  "That 
the  position* were  incontrovertible  is  apparent;"  "  The  positions  were  in- 
controvertible is  apparent;"  "The  positions  were  apparently  incontro- 
vertible." 

Where  is  the  nominative  case  usually  placed  ?  Mention  a  few  instances 
in  which  the  nominative  follows  the  verb.  What  do  some  grammarians  say 
of  the  phrases  as  follows,  as  appears  ?  What  is  Dr.  Campbell's  opinion  con- 
cerning them  ? 

(1.)  '♦  that  which."  437.  (2.)  Note  I.  405. 

*  These  grammarians  are  supported  by  general  usage,  and  by  the  authority  of  an 
eminent  critic  on  language  and  composition.  "  When  a  verb  is  used  impersonally," 
says  Dr.  Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  "  it  ought  undoubtedly  to  be  in  the 
singular  number,  whether  the  neuter  pronoun  be  expressed  or  understood."  For  this 
reason,  analogy  and  usage,  favor  this  mode  of  expression  ;  "  The  conditions  of  the 
agreement  were  as  follows,"  and  not  "as  follow."  A  few  late  writers  have  incon- 
siderately adopted  this  last  form,  through  a  mistake  of  the  construction.  For  the 
same  reason,  we  ought  to  say,  "  I  shall  consider  his  censures  so  far  only  as  concerns 
my  friend's  conduct,"  and  not  "  bo  far  as  concern." 


SYNTAX.  125 

RniiE   XVZII. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  II. 

Two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  singular  number, 
connected  together  by  and,  either  expressed  or  under- 
stood, must  have  verbs,  nouns  and  pronouns  agreeing 
with  them  in  the  plural  number. 

This  rule  is  often  violated  ;  some  instances  of  which  are  annexed.  "  An'd 
so  was  also  James  and  John,  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  who  were  partners  with 
Simon ;"  "  and  so  were  also."  "  All  joy,  tranquillity  and  peace,  even  for 
ever  and  ever,  doth  dwell;"  ^^ dwell  for  ever."  "By  whose  power  all 
good  and  evil  is  distributed ;"  **  are  distributed."  **  Their  love,  and  their 
hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  perished  ;"  **  are  perished."  *'  The  thought- 
less and  intemperate  enjoyment  of  pleasure,  the  criminal  abuse  of  it,  and 
the  forgetfulness  of  our  being  accountable  creatures,  obUterates  every  seri- 
ous thought  of  the  proper  business  of  life,  and  effaces  the  sense  of  religion 
and  of  God;"  it  ought  to  be,  '*  obliterate' '  and  *' efface.'' 

*'  All  joy,  tranquiUity,  &c.,  doth  dwell."  Which  word  is  wrong  in  this 
example  ?  In  what  particular,  wrong  ?  What  correction,  then,  should  be 
made  ?  Why  ?  Recite  the  Rule. 

"  Idleness    and    ignorance    is   the  "  The  planetary  system,  boundless 

parent  of  many  vices."  space,  and  the  immense  ocean, 

"  Wisdom,  virtue,  happiness,  dwells  affects  the  mind  with  sensations 

with  the  golden  mediocrity."  of  astonishment." 

"  In  unity  consists  the  welfare  and  "  Humility  and  love,  whatever  (3.) 

security  of  every  society."  obscurities  may  involve   religi- 

"  Time  and  ti^  waits  for  no  man."  ous      tenets,      constitutes     the 

"His  politeness  and   good  disposi-  essence  of  true  religion." 

tion   was^   on    failure   of   their  "Religion  and  virtue,  our  best  supti 

effect,  entirely  changed."  port   (4.)    and  highest   honour, 

"Patience   and  diligence,  like  (1.)  confers  on  the  mind  principles 

faith,     (2.)      removes      moun-  of  noble  independence." 

tains."  "  What    (5.)    signifies   the    counsel 

"  Humility    and    knowledge,    with  and   care   of  preceptors,  when 

poor   apparel,  excels  pride  and  youth  think  they  have  no  (6.) 

ignorance  under  costly  attire."  need  of  assistance  ?" 

1.  When  the  nouns  are  nearly  related,  or  scarcely  distinguishable  in 
sense,  and  sometimes  even  when  they  are  very  different,  some  authors 
have  thought  it  allowable  to  put  the  verbs,  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  sin- 
gular number;  as,  "Tranquillity  and  peace  dwells  there;"  "Ignorance 
and  negligence  has  produced  the  effect ;"  "  ^i'he  discomfiture  and  slaughter 
was  very  great."  But  it  is  evidently  contrary  to  the  first  principles  of 
grammar,  to  consider  two  distinct  ideas  as  one,  however  nice  may  be  their 
shades  of  difference ;  and  if  there  be  no  difference,  one  of  them  must  be 
superfluous,  and  ought  to  be  rejected.  ♦ 

To  support  the  above  construction,  it  is  said,  that  the  verb  may  be  undeF- 
stood  as  applied  to  each  of  the  preceding  terms  ;  as  in  the  following  exam- 
ple :  "Sand,  and  salt,  and  a  mass  of  iron,  is  easier  to  bear  than  a  man 
without  understanding."     But  besides  the  confusion,  and  the  latitude  of 

(1.)  Adverb.  (2.)  Rule  X.  See  Note  XVTI.  647.  (3.)  Note  I.  405. 

(4.)  Rule  XV.  (5.)  Rule  VIII.  C6.)  239. 

11* 


126  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

application,  which  such  a  construction  would  introduce,  it  appears  to  be 
more  proper  and  analogical,  in  cases  where  the  verb  is  intended  to  be  ap- 
plied to  any  one  of  the  terms,  to  make  use  of  the  disjunctive  conjunction, 
which  grammatically  refers  the  verb  to  one  or  other  of  the  preceding  terms, 
in  a  separate  view.  To  preserve  the  distinctive  uses  of  the  copulative  and 
disjunctive  conjunctions,  would  render  the  rules  precise,  consistent  and 
intelligible.  Dr.  Blair  very  justly  observes,  that  "two  or  more  substan- 
tives, joined  by  a  copulative,  must  always  require  the  verb  or  pronoun  to 
which  they  refer,  to  be  placed  in  the  plural  number." 

"  Tranquillity  and  peace  dwells  there."  What  dwells  ?  Is  it  not,  then,  a 
violation  of  Ruie  XVIII.  to  use  dwells  in  the  singular  number?  When  do 
some  writers  think  it  allowable  to  put  the  verbs,  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the 
singular  number  .?  Is  this  usage  grammatical  ?  In  what  does  the  incorrect- 
ness consist?  If  there  be  no  difference  in  the  meaning  of  terms,  are  both 
necessary  ?  What  ought  to  be  done  with  the  superfluous  one  ?  How  do 
some  attempt  to  support  the  above  construction?  How  would  they  read,  on 
this  principle,  the  example  beginning  with,  "  Sand,  and  salt,  and  a  mass  of 
iron,  is  easier,"  &c.  ?  (1.)  In  examples  Hke  the  last,  what  conjunction  can 
we  substitute  in  the  place  oi .and,  which  will  better  express  the  sense  ? 
What  does  Dr.  Blair  say  on  this  subject? 

1. 

"  Much  <?oes  human  pride  and  self-     "Pride   and   self-sufficiency   stifles 

complacency  require  correction."  sentiments    of  dependence    on 

"Luxurious  living,  and  high  plea-  our    Creator;     levity    and    at- 

sures,    hegets    a    languor    and  tachment   to  worldly  pleasures 

satiety  that  destroys  all  enjoy-  destroys  the  sense  of  gratitude 

ment."  to  him." 

2.  In  many  complex  sentences,  it  is  difficult  for  learners  to  determine, 
whether  one  or  more  of  the  clauses  are  to  be  considered  as  the  nominative 
case  ;  and,  consequently,  whether  the  verb  should  be  in  the  singular  or  the 
plural  number.  We  shall,  therefore,  set  down  a  number  of  varied  exam- 
ples of  this  nature,  which  may  serve  as  some  government  to  the  scholar 
with  respect  to  sentences  of  a  similar  construction.  "Prosperity,  with 
humihty,  renders  its  possessor  truly  amiable."  "The  smp,  with  all  her 
furniture,  was  destroyed."  "  Not  only  his  estate,  his  reputation  too  has 
suffered  by  his  misconduct."  "  The  general,  also,  in  conjunction  with  the 
officers,  has  applied  for  redress."  "  He  cannot  be  justified  ;  for  it  is  true, 
that  the  prince,  as  well  as  the  people,  was  blameworthy."  "The  king, 
wi'h  his  life-guard,  has  just  passed  through  the  village."  "  In  the  mutual 
ii'fluence  of  body  and  soul,  there  is  a  wisdom,  a  wonderful  wisdom,  which 
we  cannot  fathom."  "  Virtue,  honour,  nay,  even  self-interest,  conspire  to 
recommend  the  measure."  "  Patriotism,  morality,  every  public  and  pri- 
vate consideration,  demand  our  submission  to  just  and  lawful  government." 
**  Nothing  delights  me  so  much  as  the  works  of  nature." 

In  support  of  such  forms  of  expression  as  the  following,  we  see  the 
authority  of  Plume,  Priestley,  and  other  writers ;  and  we  annex  them  for 
the  reader's  consideration:  "A  long  course  of  time,  with  a  variety  of 
accidents  and  circumstances,  are  requisite  to  produce  those  revolutions." 
"  The  king,  with  the  lords  and  commons,  form  an  excellent  frame  of 
government."  "The  side  A,  with  the  sides  B  and  C,  compose  the  tri- 
angle." "  The  fire  communicated  itself  to  the  bed,  which,  with  the  furni- 
ture of  the  room,  and  a  valuable  library,  were  all  entirely  consumed."  It 
is,  however,  proper  to  observe,  that  these  modes  of  expression  do  not 
appear  to  be  warranted  by  the  just  principles  of  construction.  The  words, 
"  A  long  course  of  time,"  "  The  king,"  "  The  side  A,"  and  "  which," 
are  the  true  nominatives  to  the  respective  verbs.  In  the  last  example, 
the  word  all  should  be  expunged.  As  the  preposition  with  governs  the 
objective  case  in  English,   and,  if  translated  into   Latin,  would  govern 

(I.)  "  Sand  is  easier,  and  salt  is  easier,  and  a  mass  of  iron  ia  easier,"  &c. 


SYNTAX. 


127 


the  ablative  case,  it  is  manifest,  that  the  clauses  following  with,  in  the  pre- 
ceding sentences,  cannot  form  any  part  of  the  nominative  case.  They  can- 
not be  at  the  same  time  in  the  objective  and  the  nominative  cases.  The 
following  sentence  arppears  to  be  unexceptionable,  and  may  serve  to  explain 
the  others:  "  The  lords  and  commons  are  essential  branches  of  the  British 
constitution :  the  king,  with  them,  forms  an  excellent  frame  of  govern- 
ment." 

**  The  side  A,  with  the  sides  B  and  C,  compose  the  triangle."  In  this  sen- 
tence, what  is  the  nominative  case  to  compose  ?  Should  the  verb,  then,  be 
singular  or  plural  ?  What  difficulty  is  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  this 
Note? 

2. 


"Good  order  in  our  affairs,  not 
mean  savings,  produce  great 
profits." 

"The  following  treatise,  together 
with  those  that  accompany  it, 
were  written  many  years  ago, 
for  my  own  private  satisfac- 
tion." 

"That  great  senator,  in  concert 
with  several  other  eminent  per- 
sons, were  the  projectors  (1.)  of 
the  revolution." 

"The  religion  of  these  people,  as 
well  as  their  customs  and 
manners,  loere  strangely  mis- 
represented." 

"Virtue,  joined  to  knowledge  and 
wealth,  confer  great  influence 
and  respectability.  But  know- 
ledge,  with  wealth    united,    if 


virtue  is  wanting,  have  a  very 
limited  influence,  and  are  often 
despised." 

"  That  superficial  scholar  and  critic,' 
like  some  reno  wned  critics  of  our 
own,  have  (5.)  furnished  most 
decisive  proofs  that  they  (3.) 
knew  not  the  characters  of  the 
Hebrew  language." 

"The  buildings  of  the  institution 
have  been  enlarged ;  the  ex- 
pense of  which,  added  (4.)  to 
the  increased  price  of  pro- 
visions, render  it  necessary  to 
advance  the  terms  of  admis- 
sion." 

"One,  added  to  nineteen,  make 
twenty." 

"What  (5.)  black  despair,  what 
horror,  fills  the  mind  I" 


3.  If  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  are  joined  together  by  a 
copulative  conjunction,  be  of  several  persons,  in  making  the  plural  pronouns 
agree  with  them  in  person,  the  second  person  takes  place  of  the  third,  and 
the  first  of  both  ;  as,  "  James,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  our  coun- 
try ;"  "  Thoa  and  he  shared  it  between  yow." 

"  James,  and  thou,  and  I,  am  attached  to  our  country."  What  is  wrong 
in  this  example  ?  In  what  particular,  wrong?  What  correction  should  be 
made  ?  Why  ?  "  Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  him."  Will  you  correct 
this  example  ?    Why  use  you  instead  oihim  ?    Will  you  repeat  the  Note  ? 


3. 


"  Thou,  and  the  gardener,  and  the 
huntsman,  must  share  the 
blame  of  this  business  amongst 
them" 


'  My  sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my 
brother,  are  daily  employed 
in  their  respective  occupa- 
tions." 


♦Though  the  construction  will  not  admit  of  a  plural  verb,  the  sentence  would 
certainly  stand  better  thus:  "  The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  commons,  form  an  ex- 
cellent constitution." 

(2.)  632.  Exception  1.  (3.)  "  he  knew:* 

(5.)  4:m. 


(1.)  Rule  XV.  613. 
(4.)  Rule  XTII.  557 


128  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

HVZjB    XXIII. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  III. 

The  conjunction  disjunctive  has  an  effect  contrary  to  that 
of  the  conjunction  copulative ;  for  as  the  verb,  noun 
or  pronoun,  is  referred  to  the  preceding  terms  taken 
L  separately,  it  must  be  in  the  singular  number;  as, 
\  "  Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused  this  mistake ;" 
"  John,  James,  or  Joseph,  intends  to  accompany  me ;" 
"  There  is,  in  many  minds,  neither  knowledge  nor 
understanding." 

The  following  sentences  are  variations  from  this  rule :  "  A  man  may  see 
a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read  them  in  a  descrip- 
tion ;"  "read  iV."  "  is  either  character  nor  dialogue  were  yet  understood  ;" 
**  ims  yet."  "  It  must  indeed  be  confessed,  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do 
not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder  ;"  ''does  not  carry  in  i7."  "  Death, 
or  some  worse  misfortune,  soon  divide  them ;"  it  ought  to  be,  ''divides.^' 

*'  Neither  character  nor  dialogue  were  yet  understood."  What  is  wrong 
in  this  example  ?  Why  ?  Will  you  correct  it  ?  What  is  the  Rule  for  this 
correction  ? 

**  Man's  happiness  or  misery  are,  in  "  When   sickness,  infirmity,  or  re- 

a  great  measure,  put   into  his  verse  of  fortune  affect   us,  the 

own  hands."  sincerity  of  friendship  is  prov- 

"  Man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  cd." 

clock  or  a  watch,  which  7nove  "Let  (1.)    it   be   remembered,  (2.) 

merely  as  they  are  moved  ?"  that  (3.)  it  is  not  the  uttering, 

"  Despise   no  infirmity  of  mind  or  or  the  hearing  of  certain  words, 

body,  nor  any  condition  of  life ;  that  constitute  the  worship  of 

for  they  are,  perhaps,  to  be  your  the  Almighty." 

own  lot."  "  A  tart  reply,  a  proneness  to  re- 

"  Speaking  impatiently  to  servants,  buke,  or  a  captious  and  Con- 
or anything  that  betrays  inat-  tradictious  spirit,  are  capable 
tention  or  ill-humour,  are  cer-  ^  of  imbittering  (4.)  domestic  life, 
tainly  criminal."  (5.)    and   of  setting   friends   at 

"  There  are  many  faults  in  spelling,  variance." 
which  neither  analogy  nor  pro- 
nunciation justify." 

1.  When  singular  pronouns,  or  a  noun  and  pronoun  of  different  persons, 
are  disjunctively  connected,  the  verb  must  agree  with  that  person  which  is 
placed  nearest  to  it;  as,  "I  or  thou  art  to  blame;"  "Thou  or  I  am  in 
fault ;"  "I,  thou,  or  he,  is  the  author  of  it ;"  "  George  or  I  am  the  per- 
son." But  it  would  be  better  to  say,  "  Either  I  am  to  blame,  or  thou 
art,"  &c. 

"  I  or  thou  am  to  blame."  How  should  this  be  altered?  What  is.  the 
Rule  for  it? 

1. 
"  Either  (6.)  thou  or  I  art  greatly     "  I  or  thou  am  the  person  (7.)  who 
mistaken,  in  our  judgment  on  must    undertake    the    business 

the  subject."  proposed." 

(1.)  Imperative  mood,  agreeing  with  thou  or  you  understood,  by  Rule  VI. 
(2.)  Infinitive,  480.  (.3.)  Conjunction.  (4.)  Rule  X.  (5.)  Rule  XIV.  560. 
(6.)   659.  (7.)  Rule  XV.  613. 


SYNTAX.  129 

2.  When  a  disjunctive  occurs  between  a  singular  noun,  or  pronoun,  and 
a  plural  one,  the  verb  is  made  to  agree  with  the  plural  noun  and  pronoun; 
as,  "  Neither  poverty  nor  riches  were  injurious  to  him  ;"  *'  I  or  they  were 
offended  by  it."  But  in  this  case,  the  plural  noun  or  pronoun,  when  it  can 
conveniently  be  done,  should  be  placed  next  to  the  verb. 

*' I  or  they  was  offended."  What  is  wrong  in  this  example?  What  is 
the  Rule  for  the  correction  ? 

2. 
"Both  (1.)  of  the  scholars,  or  one  of    "Whether  one  person  or  more  was 
them   at  .least,  was  present  at  concerned  in  the  business,  does 

the  transaction."  not  appear." 

"  Some  parts  of  the  ship  and  cargo     "  The  cares  of  this  life,  or  the  de- 
.were  recovered;  but  neither  (2.)  ceitfulness  of  riches,  has  choked 

the  sailors  nor  the  captain  was  the  seeds  of  virtue  in  many  a 

saved."  promising  (3.)  mind." 


NOTE  XVI. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar. 
RULE  IV. 

Jl  verb  in  the  plural  ivill  agree  loith  a  collective  noun  in 
the  singular,  when  a  part  only  of  the  individuals  are 
meant ;  as,  ''  The  council  were  divided  in  their  sen- 
timents." When  the  noun  expresses  the  idea  of  unity, 
the  verb  should  be  singular ;  as,  "  The  council  was 
composed  wholly  of  farmers." 

We  ought  to  consider  whether  the  term  will  immediately  suggest  the  idea 
of  the  number  it  represents,  or  whether  it  exhibits  to  the  mind  the  idea  of 
the  whole,  as  one*  thing.  In  the  former  case,  the  verb  ought  to  be  plural ; 
in  the  latter,  it  ought  to  be  singular.  Thus,  it  seems  improper  to  say,  "  The 

Peasantry  goes  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  makes  use  of  wooden  shoes." 
t  would  be  better  to  say,  "  The  peasantry  go  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort 
make  use,"  &c.,  because  the  idea,  in  both  these  cases,  is  that  of  a  number. 
On  the  contrary,  there  is  a  harshness  in  the  following  sentences,  in  which 
nouns  of  number  have  verbs  plural,  because  the  ideas  they  represent  seem 
not  to  be  sufficiently  divided  in  the  mind :  '*  The  court  of  Rome  were  not 
without  solicitude."  **The  house  of  commons  were  of  small  weight." 
"  The  house  of  lords  were  so  much  influenced  by  these  reasons."  "  Ste- 
phen's party  were  entirely  broken  up  by  the  captivity  of  their  leader."  "An 
army  of  twenty-four  thousand  toere  assembled."  "  What  reason  have  the 
church  of  Rome  for  proceeding  in  this  manner  ?"  *'  There  is  indeed  no  con- 
stitution so  tame  and  careless  of  their  own  defence." — "  All  the  virtues  of 
mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fingers,  but  his  follies  and  vices  are 
innumerable."  Is  not  mankind,  in  this  place,  a  noun  of  multitude,  and 
such  as  requires  the  pronoun  referring  to  be  in  the  plural  number,  their  ^ 

"  The  peasantry  goes  barefoot,"  (fee.  What  correction  is  necessary  in 
this  example  ?    Why  ? 

"The     people     rejoices     in     that  "The  court  have  just  ended,  after 

which     should    give     it     sor-  having  sat    through    the    trial 

row."  of  a  very  long  cause." 

•*The   flock,   and    not    the    fleece,  "The   crowd   were   so   great,  that 

are,  or  ought   to    be,  the    oh.  the  judges  with  difficulty  made 

jects  of  the  shepherd's   care."  their  way  through  them." 

n.)  407.  (2.)  Conjunction  when  followed  by  nor.  (3.)  Rule  XIII. 


130 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


"The  corporation  of  York  consist 
of  a  mayor,  aldermen,  and  a 
common  council." 

"The  British  parliament  are  com- 
posed of  king,  lords  and  com- 
mons." 

"When  the  nation  complain,  the 
rulers  should  listen  to  their 
voice." 

"  In  the  days  of  youth,  the  multi- 
tude eagerly  pursues  pleasure 
as  its  chief  good." 

"  The  church  have  no  power  to  in- 
flict corporal  punishment." 

"The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  (1.) 
up  the  channel." 

"The  regiment  consist  of  a  thou- 
sand (2.)  men." 

"The  meeting  have  established 
several  salutary  regulations." 

"The  council  was  not  unanimous, 
and  it  separated  without  com- 
ing (3.)  to  any  determina- 
tion." 

"  The  fleet  is  all  arrived  and  moored 
(4.)  in  safety." 


"This  people  draweth  near  to  me 
with  their  mouth,  and  konoreth 
me  with  their  lips,  but  their 
heart  is  far  from  me." 

"  The  committee  was  divided  in  its 
sentiments,  and  it  has  referred 
the  business  to  the  general 
meeting." 

"The  committee  were  very  full 
when  this  point  was  decided ; 
and  their  judgment  has  not 
been  called  in  question." 

"Why  (6.)  do  this  generation  wish 
for  greater  evidence,  when  so 
much  (5.)  is  already  given  ?" 

"The  remnant  of  the  people  were 
persecuted   with    great    severi- 

ty-" 

"Never   were    any   people  so   (6.) 

much  (6.)  infatuated  (7.)  as  tlie 

Jewish  nation." 
"  The  shoal  of  herrings  were  of  an 

immense  extent." 
"  No  society  are  chargeable  with  the 

disapproved  (8.)  misconduct  of 

particular  members." 


Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammer, 
RULE  V. 

Pronouns  must  agree  with  the  nouns  for  which  they  standi 
in  gender,  number  and  person. 

Of  this  rule  there  are  many  violations  to  be  met  with ;  a  few  of  which 
may  be  sufficient  to  put  the  learner  on  his  guard.  ''Each  of  the  sexes  should 
keep  within  its  particular  bounds,  and  content  themselves  with  the  advantages 
of  their  particular  districts  :"  better  thus ;  '*  The  sexes  should  keep  within 
their  particular  bounds,"  &c.  *'  Can  any  one,  on  their  entrance  into  the 
world,  be  fully  secure  that  they  shall  not  be  deceived  ?"  "  on  his  entrance," 
and  '*  that  he  shall."  **  One  should  not  think  too  favorably  of  ourselves  ;" 
'*  oi one's  self.^^  **  He  had  one  acquaintance  which  poisoned  his  principles  ;" 
'^who  poisoned." 

Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it  refers,  either  ex- 
pressed or  implied  ;  as,  **  Who  is  fatal  to  others,  is  so  to  himself;"  that  is, 
**  the  man  who  is  fatal  to  others." 

Who,  which,  what,  and  the  relative  that,  though  in  the  objective  case,  are 
always  placed  before  the  verb  ;  as  are  also  their  compounds,  whoever,  who- 
soever, &c. ;  as,  "  He  whom  ye  seek  ;"  "  This  is  what,  or  the  thing  which, 
or  that  you  want;"  '*  Whomsoever  you  please  to  appoint." 

What  is  sometimes  applied  in  a  manner  which  appears  to  be  exceptiona- 
ble ;  as,  *'  All  fevers,  ^cept  what  are  called  nervous,"  &c.  It  would  at 
least  be  better  to  say,  "  except  those  which  are  called  nervous." 

"One  should  not  think  too  favorably  of  ourselves."  How  should  this 
sentence  be  altered  ?  What  is  the  Rule  for  it?  Are  the  relatives  placed  be- 
fore or  after  the  verb  ? 


(1.)  Hiile  XIII. 
<6.)  Adverb. 


(2.)  Note  I.  405.  (3.)  561. 

(7.)  '*  were  iiifatuated.'' 


(4.)  Rule  XI. 
(8.)  Rule  XIII. 


(5.)  673. 


SYNTAX. 


131 


•*  The  exercise  of  reason  appears  as 
(I.)  little  (2.)  in  these  sports* 
men,  as  in  the  beasts  whom  they 
sometimes  hunt,  and  by  whom 
they  are  sometimes  hunted." 

"They  which  seek  Wisdom  will 
certainly  find  Acr."  ' 

**  The  male  amongst  birds  seems  to 
discover  no  beauty,  but  in  the 
color  of  its  species." 

"Take  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the 
furnace,  and  let  Moses  sprinkle 
it  towards  heaven,  in  the  sight 
of  Pharaoh ;  and  it  shall  be- 
come small  dust." 

"Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment, 
which  were  with  her  in  the 
house,  and  put  them  upon 
Jacob." 

"The  wheel  killed  another  man, 
which  is  the  sixth  which  have 
lost  their  lives  by  this  means." 

"The  fair  sex,  whose  task  is  not 
to  mingle  in  the  labors  of  pub. 
lie  life,  has  its  own  part  assign- 
ed it  to  act." 

"The  Hercules  man-of-war  foQn- 
dered  at  sea;  she  overset,  and 
lost  most  (3.)  of  her  men." 

"  The  mind  of  man  cannot  be  long 
without  some  food  to  nourish 
the  activity  of  his  thoughts." 


"  What  is  the  reason  that  our  lan- 
guage is  less  refined  than 
those  of  Italy,  Spain,  or 
France  ?" 

"  I  do  not  think  any  one  should 
incur  censure  for  being  (4.) 
tender  (5.)  of  their  reputa- 
tion." 

"Thou  who  hast  been  a  witness 
(6.;  of  the  fact,  can  give  an 
account  of  it." 

"In  religious  concerns,  or  what 
(7.)  is  conceived  to  be  such, 
(8.)  every  man  must  stand  or 
fall  by  the  decision  of  the  great 
Judge." 

"Something  like  (9.)  what  (10.) 
have  been  here  premised,  are 
the  conjectures  of  Dryden." 

"Thou    great    First    Cause,    (11.) 
least  understood  !  (12.) 
Who  all  my  sense  confined,  (13.) 

To   know  but   this,  that   thou   art 
good, 
And  that  myself  (11.)  am  blind; 

Yet  gave  (14.)  me  in  this  dark 
estate,"  &c. 

"What  (6.)  art  thou,  (11.)  speak, 
that,  (15.)  on  designs  un- 
known, \(  16.) 

While  others  sleep,  thus  range  (17.) 
the  camp  alone  ?" 


1.  Personal  pronouns,  being  used  to  supply  the  place  of  the  noun,  are 
not  employed  in  the  same  part  of  a  sentence  as  the  noun  which  they  repre- 
sent ;  for  it  would  be  improper  to  say,  "  The  king  Ae  is  just ;"  "I  saw  her 
the  queen;"  "The  men  they  were  there;"  "Many  words  they  darken 
speech;"  "My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees."  These  personals 
are  superfluous,  as  there  is  not  the  least  occasion  for  a  substitute  in  the 
same  part  where  the  principal  word  is  present.  The  nominative  case  they, 
in  the  following  sentence,  is  also  superfluous:  "Who,  instead  of  going 
about  doing  good,  they  are  perpetually  intent  upon  doing  mischief." 

"  The  king  he  is  just."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  tell  why  it 
is  wrong  ? 


1. 


"Whoever  (18.)  entertains  such 
an  opinion,  he  judges  errone- 
ously." 

"The    cares    of  this   world,  they 


often  choke  the  growth  of  vir- 
tue." 
"  Disappointments    and    afilictions, 
however  disagreeable,  they  often 
improve  us." 

2.  The  pronoun  that  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  to  things ; 
but  after  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree,  and  after  the  pronominal 


(1.)  Rule  IX.  (2.)  Adverb.  (3.)  676.  (4.)  561.  (5.)  Rule  IV. 

(6.)  Rule  XV.  (7)  "  </mc  whichr  437.  (8.)  "such  concerns,''  Rule  IV. 

(9.)  Rule  IV.        (10.)  Rule  VI.  and  X.  Note  XVII.        (11.)  Rule  XV.        (12.)  Rule 
XIII.  (13.)  '' eovfinedst."  (14.)  '' gavest"  (15.)  Conjunction. 

(16.)  Rule  XIII.  (17.)  "  t/osi  range."  (18.)  "  i/c  zcAo." 


132  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

adjective  samef  it  is  generally  used  in  preference  to  who  or  which;  as, 
**  Charles  XII.  king  of  Sweden,  was  one  of  the  greatest  madmen  that  the 
world  ever  saw ;"  "  Catiline's  followers  were  the  most  profligate  that  could 
be  found  in  any  city  ;"  "  He  is  the  same  man  that  w,e  saw  before."  There 
are  cases  wherein  we  cannot  conveniently  dispense  with  this  relative  as 
apphed  to  persons :  as,  first,  after  who,  the  interrogative  ;  \'  Who,  that  has 
any  sense  of  rehgion,  would  have  argued  thus  ?"  Secondly,  when  persons 
make  but  a  part  of  the  antecedent;  "The  woman,  and  the  estate,  that 
became  his  portion,  were  too  much  for  his  moderation."  In  neither  of 
these  examples  could  any  other  relative  have  been  used. 

To  what  is  the  pronoun  that  applied  ?  and  when  is  it  used  in  preference 
to  who  or  which?  (416.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.)     Give  an  example. 

2. 

"  Moses    was    the    meekest    man  "  They  are  the  same  persons  who 

whom  we  read  of  in  the   Old  assisted  us  yesterday." 

Testament."  "  The  men  and  tilings  which  he  has 

"Humility  is  one  of  the  most  ami-  studied,  have  not  improved  his 

able  virtues  which  we  can  pos-  morals." 

sess." 

3.  The  pronouns  whichsoever^  whosoever,  and  the  like,  are  elegantly 
divided  by  the  interposition  of  the  corresponding  substantives  :  thus,  *'  On 
whichsoever  side  the  king  cast  his  eyes,"  would  have  sounded  better,  if 
written,  **  On  which  side  soever,"  &c. 

Will  you  give  an  example  in  which  the  compound  pronoun  whichsoever 
may  be  divided  with  propriety  ? 

3  ' 

"  Howsoever  beautiful  they  appear,  contemplated,   they   appear    to 

they  have  no  real  merit."  advantage." 

"  In    whatsoever     light     we    view     "  However  much  he  might  despise 

him,  his  conduct  will  bear  in-  the  maxims  of  the  king's    ad- 

spection."  ministration,   he   kept    a    total 

"  On   whichsoever    side    they    are  silence  on  that  subject." 

4.  Many  persons  are  apt,  in  conversation,  to  put  the  objective  case  of  the 
personal  pronouns,  in  the  place  of  these  and  those;  as,  "Give  me  them 
books,"  instead  of  ''those  books."  We  may  sometimes  find  this  fault 
even  in  writing;  as,  "  Observe  them  three  there."  We  also  frequently 
meet  with  those  instead  of  they,  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  and  where 
there  is  no  particular  reference  to  an  antecedent;  as,  "  Those  that  sow  in 
tears,  sometimes  reap  in  joy ;"  "  They  that,  or  they  who  sow  in  tears." 

^  It  is  not,  however,  always  easy  to  say,  whether  a  personal  pronoun  or  a 
demonstrative  is  preferable,  in  certain  constructions.  "  We  are  not  unac- 
quainted with  the  calumny  of  them  [or  those]  who  openly  make  use  of  the 
warmest  professions." 

Give  me  them  books."     Why  is  this  sentence  incorrect  ? 

4. 

"  Which  of  them  two  persons  has  injuries,   than    those  (2.)    that 

most  distinguished  himself?"  are  most  (3.)  forward  in  doing 

"  None  (1.)  more'  impatiently  suffer  (4.)  them.  (5.) 

5.  In  some  dialects,  the  word  what  is  improperly  used  for  that,  and  some-, 
times  we  find  it  in  this  sense  in  writing  ;  "  They  will  never  believe  but  whatl 
have  been  entirely  to  blame."  "  I  am  not  satisfied  but  what,"  &-c.,  instead  of 
**  but  thaty  The  word  somewhat,  in  the  following  sentence,  seems  to  be  used 
improperly  :  "  These  punishments  seem  to  have  been  exercised  in  somewhat ' 

(J.)  Rule  VI.         (2.)  Note  I.  405.         (3.)  677.         (4.)  561.         (5.)  Rul«  XIV. 


SYNTAX.  138 

an  arbitrary  manner."     Sometimes  we  read,  "In  somewhat  of."    The 
meaning  is,  "  in  a  manner  which  is,  in  some  respects,  arbitrary." 
Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  improper  use  of  what  instead  of  thai  ? 
5. 
"He  would  not  be  persuaded  but     "These     commendations     of    his 
what    (1.)    I    was    greatly    in  children   appear  to  have    been 

fault.  made   in   somewhat  (2.)  an  in- 

judicious  manner. 

6.  The  pronoun  relative  who  is  so  much  appropriated  to  persons,  that  there 
is  generally  harshness  in  the  application  of  it,  except  to  the  proper  names  of 
persons,  or  the  general  terms  man,  womaii,  &c.  A  term  which  only  implies 
the  idea  of  persons,  and  expresses  them  by  some  circumstance  or  epithet,  will 
hardly  authorize  the  use  of  it ;  as,  "  That  the  faction  in  England  who  most 
powerfully  opposed  his  arbitrary  pretensions."  '*  That  faction  which,^^  would 
nave  been  better ;  and  the  same  remark  will  serve  for  the  following  examples : 
"  France,  who  was  in  alliance  with  Sweden."  "  The  court  t«Ao,"  &c.  "  The 
cavalry  «jAo,"  &c.  "The  cities  who  aspired  at  Hberty."  "That  party 
among  us  loAo,"  &.c.     "  The  family  whom  they  consider  as  usurpers." 

In  some  cases,  it  may  be  doubtful,  whether  this  pronoun  is  properly  ap- 
plied or  not ;  as,  "  The  number  of  substantial  inhabitants  with  whom  some 
cities  abound."  For  when  a  term  directly  and  necessarily  implies  persons, 
it  may  in  many  cases  claim  the  personal  relative.  "  None  of  the  company 
vjhom  he  most  affected  could  cure  him  of  the  melancholy  under  which  he 
labored."  The  word  acquaintance  may  have  the  same  construction. 
How  is  the  relative  who  used  ? 

6. 
"  He     instructed     and      fed      the     "  He  was  the  ablest  minister  which 
crowds    who     (3.)     surrounded  James  ever  possessed." 

him."  "The   court,   who  gives    currency 

"  Sidney  was  one  of  the  wisest  and  to   manners,   ought    to  be  ex^ 

most    active    governors,   which  emplary."  (4.) 

Ireland  had  enjoyed  for  several     "  I  am  happy  in  the  friend  which  I 
years."  have  long  proved." 

7.  We  hardly  consider  little  children  as  persons,  because  that  term  gives 
us  the  idea  of  reason  and  reflection;  and,  therefore,  the  application  of  the 
personal  relative  who,  in  this  case,  seems  to  be  harsh :  "  A  child  wAo."  It 
is  still  more  improperly  applied  to  animals:  "A  lake  frequented  by  that 
fowl  whom  nature  has  taught  to  dip  the  vidng  in  water." 

Do  we  say,  "  A  child  who,"  or  "  A  child  which"  ?  Will  you  repeat  the 
Note  for  this  ? 

7. 
"The  child  whom  we    have   just     "He    is   like  (4.)  a    beast  (5.)  of 
seen,  is  wholesomely  fed,  and  prey,    who    destroys     without 

not    injured    by    bandages    or  pity." 

clothing." 

8.  When  the  name  of  a  person  is  used  merely  as  a  name,  and  it  does  not 
refer  to  the  person,  the  pronoun  who  ought  not  to  be  applied.  "It  is  no 
wonder  if  such  a  man  did  not  shine  at  the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  who 
was  but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy."  Better  thus  :  "  whose 
name  was  but  another  word  for  prudence,"  &.c.  The  word  whose  begins 
likewise  to  be  restricted  to  persons ;  yet  it  is  not  done  so  generally,  but  that 
^ood  writers,  even  in  prose,  use  it  when  speaking  of  things.  The  construc- 
tion is  not,  however,  generally  pleasing,  as  we  may  see  in  the  following 
instances :  "  Pleasure,  whose  nature,"  &c.  "  Call  every  production,  whose 
parts  and  whose  nature,"  &.c. 

(1.)  "  that."    Conjunction.        (2.)  "  in  a  manner  lehich  is,  in  some  respects,  inju' 

dicious."         (3.)  "  that:*       (4.)  Rule  IV.         (5.)  Rule  X.  Note  XVII. 

12  M 


134  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

In  one  case,  however,  custom  authorizes  us  to  use  which,  with  respect  to 
persons  ;  and  that  is,  when  we  want  to  distinguish  one  person  of  two,  or  a 
particular  person  among  a  number  of  others.  We  should  then  say,  "  Which 
of  the  two,"  or  "  Which  of  them  is  he  or  she  ?" 

*•  The  court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  who,"  &c.  Will  you  correct  this  sen- 
tence, and  give  the  Note  for  it  ? 

8. 
"Having  once  disgusted  (1.)  him,  deceive  and   betray,  should  be 

he  could  never  regain  the  favor  avoided    as   the   poisonous    ad- 

of  Nero,  who  was  indeed  another  der." 

name  for  cruelty."  "  Who  of  those  men  came  to  his 

"  Flattery,  whose  nature  (2.)  is  to  assistance  ?" 

9.  As  the  pronoun  relative  has  no  distinction  of  number,  we  sometimes 
find  an  ambiguity  in  the  use  of  it;  as,  when  we  say,  **The  disciples  of 
Christ,  whom  we  imitate,"  we  may  mean  the  imitation  either  of  Christ,  or 
of  his  disciples.  The  accuracy  and  clearness  of  the  sentence  depend  very 
much  upon  the  proper  and  determinate  use  of  the  relative,  so  that  it  may 
readily  present  its  antecedent  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader,  without 
any  obscurity  or  ambiguity. 

What  is  remarked  in  this  Note  on  the  use  of  the  relative  pronoun  ? 

9. 
"The  king  (3.)  dismissed  his  min-     "There  are   millions  of  people  in 
ister  without  any  inquiry;  who  the  empire  (4.)  of  China  whose 

had  never  before  committed  so  support  is  derived  almost  entire- 

unjust  an  action."  ly  from  rice." 

10.  It  is  and  it  was  are  often,  after  the  manner  of  the  French,  used  in  a 
plural  construction,  and  by  some  of  our  best  writers ;  as,  "  It  is  either  a  few 
great  men  who  decide  for  the  whole,  or  it  is  the  rabble  that  follow  a  sedi- 
tious ring-leader  ;"  *'  /<  is  they  that  are  the  real  authors,  though  the  soldiers 
are  the  actors  of  the  revolution;"  "  It  was  the  heretics  that  first  began  to 
rail,"  &c. ;  **  Tts  these  that  early  taint  the  female  mind."  This  license  in 
the  construction  of  it  is,  (if  it  be  proper  to  admit  it  at  all,)  has,  however, 
been  certainly  abused  in  the  following  sentence,  which  is  thereby  made  a 
very  awkward  one:  **/<  is  wonderful  the  very  few  accidents,  which,  in 
several  years,  happen  from  this  practice." 

How  are  it  is  and  it  was  often  used  ?  Give  an  example  in  which  they  are 
Hsed  incorrectly  in  this  sense. 

10. 
"It    is    remarkable    his   continual     "It  is  indisputably  true  his  asser- 
endeavors  to  serve  us,  notwith-  tion,  though  it  is  a  paradox^ 

standing  our  ingratitude."  (5.)  (6.) 

11.  The  interjections  0  !  oh  !  and  ah  !  require  the  objective  case  of  a  pro- 
noun in  the  first  person  after  them  ;  as,  "  O  me  !  Oh  me  !  Ah  me  !"  but 
the  nominative  case  in  the  second  person  ;  as,  *'  O  thou  persecutor  !"  "  O 
ye  hypocrites!"  **  0  thou  who  dwellest,"  &c. 

The  neuter  pronoun,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the  English  language,  is 
frequently  joined,  in  explanatory  sentences,  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the 
masculine  or  feminine  gender ;  as,  '*  It  was  I ;"  "It  was  the  man  or  woman 
that  did  it." 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  omitted  and  understood :  thus  we 
say,  "As  appears,  as  follows,"  for  "As  it  appears,  as  it  follows;"  and 
"  May  be,"  for  "  It  may  be." 

(1.)  "  Havivg  disgusted."  Rule  XIII.  (2.)  "  the  nature  of  which:'  (3.)  "  The 
king,  who  had  never,"  ice.  (4.)  "  There  are  in  the  empire"  &c.  (5.)  "  JHis  con- 

tinual," &.C.;  ending  the  sentence  with,  "are  remarkable."        (6.)  "■  His  assertion^ 
though  paradoxical"  &o»  •* 


SYNTAX.  135 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  express, 

1st.  The  subject  of  any  discourse  or  inquiry  ;  as,  "  It  happened  on  a  sum- 
mer's day  ;"  *'  Who  is  it  that  calls  on  me  ?" 

2d.  The  state  or  condition  of  any  person  or  thing  ;  as,  "  How  is  it  with 
you?" 

3d.  The  thing,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  the  cause  of  any  effect  or  event ; 
or  any  person  considered  merely  as  a  cause ;  as,  '*  We  heard  her  say  it  was 
not  he;"  **  The  truth  is,  it  was  I  that  helped  her." 

Why  is  it  incorrect  to  say,  "  Oh  I"  ?  Why  incorrect  to  say,  '*  Oh  thee"  ? 

11. 
"  Ah !     unhappy    thee,     who    art     "  Oh  I   happy  we,  surrounded  with 
deaf  to  the  calls  of  duty  and  so  many  blessings." 

of  honor." 


RX7Z.I:  xxzv. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb,  lohen 
no  nominative  case  comes  between  it  and  the  verb ;  as^ 
"  The  master  who  taught  us ;"  "  The  trees  which  are 
planted." 

When  a  nominative  case  comes  between  the  relative  and 
the  verb  J  the  relative  is  governed  by  some  word  in  its 
own  member  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  He  who  preserves 
me,  to  v)hom  I  owe  my  bQing,  whose  I  am,  and  whom 
I  serve,  is  eternal." 

In  the  several  members  of  the  last  sentence,  the  relative  performs  a  dif- 
ferent office.  In  the  first  member,  it  marks  the  agent ;  in  the  second,  it 
submits  to  the  government  of  the  preposition  ;  in  the  third,  it  represents  the 
possessor ;  and  in  the  fourth,  the  object  of  an  action  :  and  therefore  it  must 
l3e  in  the  thr&e  different  cases,  correspondent  to  those  offices. 

When  both  the  antecedent  and  relative  become  nominatives,  each  to 
different  verbs,  the  relative  is  the  nominative  to  the  former,  and  the  an- 
tecedent to  the  latter  verb;  as,  "  True  philosophy,  which  is  the  ornament 
of  our  nature,  consists  more  in  the  love  of  our  duty,  and  the  practice  of 
virtue,  than  in  great  talents  and  extensive  knowledge." 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  construction  will  illustrate  both  branches  of 
the  sixth  rule.  The  three  following  refer  to  the  first  part:  "  How  can  we 
avoid  being  grateful  to  those  whom,  by  repeated  kind  offices,  have  proved 
themselves  our  real  friends  ?"  *'  These  are  the  men  whom,  you  might  sup- 
pose, were  the  authors  of  the  work."  **  If  you  were  here,  you  would  find 
three  or  four,  whom  you  would  say  passed  their  time  agreeably."  In  all 
these  places,  it  should  be  who,  instead  of  whom.  The  two  latter  sentences 
contain  a  nominative  between  the  relative  and  the  verb  ;  and,  therefore, 
seem  to  contravene  the  rule  ;  but  the  student  will  reflect,  that  it  is  not  the 
nominative  of  the  verb  with  which  the  relative  is  connected. — The  remain- 
ing examples  refer  to  the  second  part  of  the  rule :  "  Men  of  fine  talents 
are  not  always  the  persons  who  we  should  esteem."  **  The  persons  who 
you  dispute  with  are  precisely  of  your  opinion."  "Our  tutors  are  our 
benefactors,  who  we  owe  obedience  to,  and  who  we  ought  to  love."  In 
these  sentences,  whom  should  be  used  instead  of  who. 

'*  These  are  the  men  whom,  you  might  suppose,  were,"  &.c.  Will  you 
correct  this  example,  and  give  the  rule  Tor  it  ? 


136  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"  We  are  dependent  on  each  others'  "They  who  have  labored  to  make 

assistance :  whom  is  there  that  us  wise  and  good,  are  the  per- 

can  subsist  by  himself?"  sons  who  we  ought  to  love  and 

"  If  he  will  not  hear  his  best  friend,  respect,  and  who  we  ought  to 

whom  shall  be  sent  to  admonish  be  grateful  to." 

him  ?"  "  The  persons,  who  conscience  and 

"They  z^jAo  (1.)  much  is  given  io,  virtue  support,  may  smile  at  the 

will  have  much  (2.)  to  answer  caprices  of  fortune." 

for."  (3.)  "  From  the  character  of  those  who 

"It    is    not    to    be    expected   that  you   associate  with,  your   own 

they,  whom   in  early  life  have  will  be  estimated." 

been  dark  and  deceitful,  should  "  That  (4.)   is   the   student  who   1 

afterwards  become  fair  and  in-  gave  the  book  to,  and  whom,  1 

genuous."  am  persuaded,  deserves  it." 

1.  When  the  relative  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative  kind,  the  noun  oi 
pronoun  containing  the  answer,  must  be  in  the  same  case  as  that  which 
contains  the  question  ;  as,  **  Whose  books  are  these  ?"  "  They  are  John's.''^ 
"  Who  gave  them  to  him?"  "  PFe."  "  Of  whom  did  you  buy  them?" 
'*  Of  a  bookseller  ;  him  who  lives  at  the  Bible  and  Crown."  "  Whom  did 
you  see  there  ?"  **  Both  him  and  the  shopman."  The  learner  will  readily 
comprehend  this  rule,  by  supplying  the  words  which  are  understood  in  the 
.answers.  Thus,  to  express  the  answers  at  large,  we  should  say,  "  They 
are  John's  books ;"  "  We  gave  them  to  him  ;"  "  We  bought  them  of  him 
who  lives,"  &c. ;  "We  saw  both  him  and  the  shopman."  As  the  relative 
pronoun,  when  used  interrogatively,  refers  to  the  subsequent  word  or 
phrase  containing  the  answer  to  the  question,  that  word  or  phrase  may 
properly  be  termed  the  subsequent  to  the  interrogative. 

"  Of  whom  did  you  buy  them  ?"  *'  Of  a  bookseller ;  he  who  lives,"  &c. 
What  is  wrong  in  this  sentence,  and  how  may  it  be  corrected  ?  What  is  the 
Note  for  it  ? 

1. 
"Of     whom     were     the     articles     "Who  was  the  money  paid   to?" 

bought?"    "Of  a   mercer;    he  "To     the     mercer     and     hia 

(5.)  who  resides   near  (6.)  the  clerk." 

mansion-house."  "Who    counted    it?"     "Both    the 

*Was  any  person  besides  (6.)  the  clerk  and  him." 

mercer   present?"    "Yes,  both 

him  and  his  clerk." 


HU'Z.B  XXV. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar. 
RULE  VII. 

When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nominatives  of 
different  persons,  the  relative  and  verb  may  agree  in 
person  with  either,  according  to  the  sense ;  as,  "  I  am 
the  man  icho  command  you ;"  or,  "  I  am  the  man  icho 
commands  you." 

The  form  of  the  first  of  the  two  preceding  sentences  expresses  the  meaning 
rather  obscurely.  It  would  be  more  perspicuous  to  say,  * '  I,  who  command 
you,  am  the  man."  Perhaps  the  difference  of  meaning  produced  by  referring 
the  relative  to  different  antecedents,  will  be  more  evident  to  the  learner  in  the 

(1.)  "  to  whom:'  (2.)  673.  (3.)  596.  (4.)  Note  I.  405. 

(5.)  Rule  XV.  (6.)  247. 


SYNTAX.  137 

following  sentences :  "  T  am  the  general  who  gives  the  orders  to-day  ;*  *•  I 
am  the  general,  who  give  the  orders  to-day ;"  that  is,  "I,  who  give  the 
orders  to-day,  am  the  general." 

When  the  relative  and  the  verb  have  been  determined  to  agree  with  either 
of  the  preceding  nominatives,  that  agreement  must  be  preserved  throughout 
the  sentence;  as  in  the  following  instance:  "I  am  the  Lord,  thdt  maketk 
all  things;  that  stretcheth  forth  the  heavens  alone."  Isa.  xliv.  24.  Thus 
far  is  consistent:  the  Lord,  in  the  third  person,  is  the  antecedent,  and  the 
verb  agrees  with  the  relative  in  the  third  person :  "  I  am  «Ae  Lord,  which 
Lord,  or  he,  that  makelh  all  things."  If  /were  made  the  antecedent,  the 
relative  and  verb  should  agree  with  it  in  the  first  person ;  as,  "/am  the 
Lord,  that  make  all  things;  that  stretch  forth  the  heavens  alone."  But 
should  it  follow,  "  that  spreadeth  abroad  the  earth  by  myself,"  there  would 
arise  a  confusion  of  persons,  and  a  manifest  solecism. 

"  I  am  the  man  who  command  you."  "  I  am  the  man  who  commands 
you."  What  is  the  nominative  to  command  in  the  first  sentence  ?  What  to 
commands  in  the  second  ?  Rule  for  each  ?  Why  is  the  verb  of  a  diflferent 
person  in  different  sentences  ? 

"I    acknowledge    that   (L)   I    am     "I  perceive  that  thou  art  a  pupil 
the    teacher,    (5.)    who     adopt  who  possesses  bright  parts,  but 

that  sentiment,  and  maintains  who   hast  cultivated  them  but 

the    propriety    of  such    meas-  (3.)  little."  (4.) 

ures."  (2.)  "  Thou  art  he  (5.)  who  breathest  on 

"Thou  art  a  friend  (5.)  that  hast  the   earth   with   the  breath   of 

often  relieved  me,  and  that  has  spring,    and    who    covereth    it 

not  deserted    me  now,   in   the  with  verdure  and  beauty." 

time  of  peculiar  need."  "  I  am  the  Lord  (5.)  thy  God,  (5.) 

"I  am  the  man  who  approves   of  who    teacheth    Ihee    to    profit, 

wholesome  discipline,  and  who  and  who  lead  thee  by  the  way 

recommend  it  to  others ;  but  I  thou  shouldst  go." 

am  not  a  person  who  promotes     "  Thou  art  the  Lord  who  did  choose 
useless  severity,  or  who  object  Abraham,  and   broughtest  him 

to    mild    and    generous    treat-  forth  (4.)  out  of  (6.)  Ur  of  the 

ment."  Chaldees." 

RUI.IS  IV. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammer, 
RULE  VIII. 

Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  which  they  describe. 

Note  I.  Adjective  pronouns  and  numerals  must  agree  in 
number  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong. 

I.    ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 
A  few  instances  of  the  breach  of  this  rule  are  here  exhibited  :  **  I  have 
not  travelled  this  twenty  years  ;"  '*  these  twenty."  "  I  am  not  recommend- 
ing these  kind  of  sufferings ;"  *'  this  kind."     "  Those  set  of  books  was  a 
valuable  present ;"  *'  that  set." 

"  I  have  not  travelled  this  twenty  years."    How  should  this  be  altered  ? 
Why  ? 
•*  These  kind  of  indulgences  soften  playing  (9.)  this    two    hours." 

and  injure  the  mind."  (10.) 

**  Instead    (7.)    of    improving    (8.)     "  Those  sort  of  favors  did  real  in- 
yourselves,     you     have     been  jury,  under  the  appearance  of 

kindness." 

(1.)  652.  (2.)  •'  adopts  and  maintains,^'  or  "  adopt  and  maintain.''  (3.)  654 

(4.)  Adverb.  (5.)  Rule  XV.  (6.)  247.         (7.)  247.  (8.)  561.         (9.)  Rulo 

XIII.  (10.)  Rule  XXII.  646, 

12*  ' 


138  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

"The  chasm  made  (1.)  by  the  earth-     "How  many  a  sorrow  (5.)  should 
quake    was    twenty    foot    (2.)  we  avoid,  if  we  were  not  in- 

broad,   (3.)    and    one    hundred  dustrious  to  make  them  !" 

fathom  (4.)  in  depth."  "  He  saw  one  or  more  persons  (6.) 

enter  (7.)  the  garden." 

1.  The  word  means,  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  phrase  ^'lythis 
means, ^^  *'  hy  that  means, ^^  are  used  by  our  best  and  most  correct  writers  ; 
namely,  Bacon,  Tillotson,  Atterbury,  Addison,  Steele,  Pope,  &c.*  They 
are  indeed,  in  so  general  and  approved  use,  that  it  would  appear  awkward, 
if  not  affected,  to  apply  the  old  singular  form,  and  say,  "  by  this  mean  ;" 
'*  by  that  mean  ;"  "it  was  by  a  mean ;^^  although  it  is  more  agreeable  to 
the  general  analogy  of  the  language.  "  The  word  means  (says  Priestley) 
belongs  to  the  class  of  words,  which  do  not  change  their  termmation  on  ac- 
count of  number ;  for  it  is  used  alike  in  both  numbers." 

The  word  amends  is  used  in  this  manner,  in  the  following  sentences: 
"  Though  he  did  not  succeed,  he  gained  the  approbation  of  his  country  ; 
and  with  this  amends  he  was  content."  '*  Peace  of  mind  is  an  honorable 
amends  for  the  sacrifices  of  interest."  '*  In  return,  he  received  the  thanks 
of  his  employers,  and  the  present  of  a  lar^e  estate :  these  were  ample 
amends  for  all  his  labors."  "  We  have  described  the  rewards  of  vice  :  the 
good  man's  amends  are  of  a  different  nature." 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  this  word  amends  (Hke  the  word  mea?is) 
had  formerly  its  correspondent  form  in  the  singular  number,  as  it  is  derived 
from  the  French  amende,  though  now  it  is  exclusively  established  in  the 
plural  form.  If,  therefore,  it  be  alleged,  that  mean  should  be  applied  in  the 
singular,  because  it  is  derived  from  the  French  moyen,  the  same  kind  of 
argument  may  be  advanced  in  favor  of  the  singular  amende ;  and  the  general 
analogy  of  the  language  may  also  be  pleaded  in  support  of  it. 

Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  has  the  following  remark  on 
the  subject  before  us :  *'  JN'o  persons  of  taste  will,  I  presume,  venture  so 
far  to  violate  the  present  usage,  and  consequently  to  shock  the  ears  of  the 
generahty  of  readers,  as  to  say,  '  By  this  mean,  by  that  mean.''  " 

(1.)  Rule  XIII.       '     (2.)  Note  XVIII.  648.  {X)  '' chasm— hroadr    Rule  IV. 

(4.)  Rule  IX.  (5.)  "  many  sorrows."  (6.)  "  one  person,  or  more  than  one." 

(7.)  Rule  XII. 

*  "  By  this  means  he  had  them  the  more  at  vantage,  being  tired  and  harassed  with 
a  long  march."  Bacon. 

"£y  this  means  one  great  restraint  from  doing  evil  would  be  taken  away."  "  And 
this  is  an  admirable  means  to  improve  men  in  virtue."  "  By  that  means  they  have 
rendered  their  duty  more  difficult."  Tillotson. 

"  It  renders  us  careless  of  approving  ourselves  to  God,  and  by  that  means  securing 
the  continuance  of  his  goodness."  "  A  good  character,  when  established,  should  not 
be  rested  in  as  an  end,  but  employed  as  a  means  of  doing  still  further  good." 

Atterbdry. 

"  Bij  this  means  they  are  happy  in  each  other."  "  He  by  that  means  preserves  his 
superiority."  Addison. 

"  Your  vanity  by  this  means  will  want  its  food."  Steele. 

'•  By  this  means  alone,  their  greatest  obstacles  will  vanish."  Pope. 

*'  Which  custom  has  proved  the  most  effectual  means  to  ruin  the  nobles." 

Dean  Swift 

"  There  is  no  means  of  escaping  the  persecution."  "  Faith  is  not  only  a  means  of 
obeying,  but  a  principal  act  of  obedience."  Dr.  Young. 

**  He  looked  on  money  as  a  necessary  means  of  maintaining  and  increasing  power." 

Lord  Lyttleton's  Henry  II. 

"  John  was  too  much  intimidated  not  to  embrace  .every  means  afforded  for  his 
safety."  •  Goldsmith. 

"  Lest  this  means  should  fail."  "  By  means  of  ship-money,  the  late  king,"  &c. 
•'  The  only  means  of  securing  a  durable  peace."  Hume. 

"  By  this  means  there  was  nothing  left  to  the  parliament  of  Ireland,"  &c. 

Blackstone. 

*'  By  this  means  so  many  slaves  escaped  out  of  the  hands  of  their  masters." 

Dr.  Robertson. 

"  By  this  means  they  bear  witness  to  each  other."  Burke. 

"  By  this  means  the  wrath  of  man  was  made  to  turn  against  itself."   Dr.  Blair. 

"  A  magazine,  which  has,  by  this  means,  contained,"  &c.  "  Birds,  in  general,  pro- 
cure  tlieir  food  by  means  of  their  beaJc."  Dr.  Paley. 


SYNTAX.  r39 

Lowth  and  Johnson  seem  to  be  against  the  use  of  means  in  the  singular 
number.  They  do  not,  however,  speak  decisively  on  the  point ;  but  rather 
dubiously,  as  ii  they  knew  that  they  were  questioning  eminent  authorities 
as  well  as  general  practice.  That  they  were  not  decidedly  against  the  ap- 
plication of  this  word  to  the  singular  number,  appears  from  their  own  lan- 
guage:  **  Whole  sentences,  whether  simple  or  compound,  may  becom© 
members  of  other  sentences  by  means  of  some  additional  connection.^* — 
Dr.  Lowth' s  Introduction  to  English  Grammar. 

**  There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  of  which  any  one  is  ignorant, 
but  by  means  of  something  already  known." — Dr.  Johnson.     Idler. 

It  is  remarkable  that  our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures  makes  no  use, 
as  far  as  the  compiler  can  discover,  of  the  word  mean  ;  though  there  are 
several  instances  to  be  found  in  it  of  the  use  oi  means,  in  the  sense  and  con- 
nection contended  for.  "  By  this  means  thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this 
side  the  river."  Ezra  iv.  16.  "  That  by  means  of  death,'*  &c,  Heb.  ix. 
15.  It  will  scarcely  be  pretended,  that  the  translators  of  the  sacred  volumes 
did  not  accurately  understand  the  English  language ;  or  that  they  would 
have  admitted  one  form  of  this  word,  and  rejected  the  other,  had  not  their 
determination  been  conformable  to  the  best  usage.  An  attempt,  therefore, 
to  recover  an  old  word,  so  long  since  disused  by  the  most  correct  writers, 
seems  not  likely  to  be  successful :  especially  as  the  rejection  of  it  is  not 
attended  with  any  inconvenience. 

The  practice  of  the  best  and  most  correct  writers,  or  a  great  majority  of 
them,  corroborated  by  general  usage,  forms,  during  its  continuance,  the 
standard  of  language  ;  especially  if,  in  particular  instances,  this  practice 
continue  after  objection  and  due  consideration.  Every  connection  and  ap- 
pUcation  of  words  and  phrases,  thus  supported,  must  therefore  be  proper, 
and  entitled  to  respect,  if  not  exceptionable  in  a  moral  point  of  view. 

"  Si  volet  usus 

"  Quern  penes  arhitriam  est,  etjus,  et  norma  loquendi.**  Hor. 

On  this  principle,  many  forms  of  expression,  not  less  deviating  from  the 
general  analogy  of  the  language  than  those  before  mentioned,  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  strictly  proper  and  justifiable.  Of  this  kind  are  the  following : 
"  None  of  them  are  varied  to  express  the  gender ;"  and  yet  no?ie  originally 
signified  7lo  one.  "  He  ^imseZ/ shall  do  the  work  :"  here,  what  was  at  first 
appropriated  to  the  objective,  is  now  properly  used  as  the  nominative  case. 
*'  You  have  behaved  yourselves  well :"  in  this  example,  the  word  you  is  put 
in  the  nominative  case  plural,  with  strict  propriety  ;  though  formerly  it  was 
confined  to  the  objective  case,  and  ye  exclusively  used  for  the  nominative. 

With  respect  to  anomalies  and  variations  of  language,  thus  established,  it  is 
the  grammarian's  busmess  to  submit,  not  to  remonstrate.  In  pertinaciously 
opposing  the  decision  of  proper  authority,  and  contending  for  obsolete  modes 
of  expression,  he  may,  indeed,  display  learning  and  critical  sagacity ;  and, 
in  some  degree,  obscure  points  that  are  sufficiently  clear  and  decided  ;  but  he 
cannot  reasonably  hope  either  to  succeed  in  his  aims,  or  to  assist  the  learner, 
in  discovering  and  respecting  the  true  standard  and  principles  of  language. 

Cases  which  custom  has  left  dubious,  are  certainly  within  the  gram- 
marian's province.  Here,  he  may  reason  and  remonstrate  on  the  ground 
of  derivation,  analogy,  and  propriety :  and  his  reasonings  may  refine  and 
improve  the  language :  but  when  authority  speaks  out,  and  decides  the 
point,  it  were  perpetually  to  unsettle  the  language,  to  admit  of  cavil  and 
debate.  Anomalies,  then,  under  the  limitation  mentioned,  become  the 
law,  as  clearly  as  the  plainest  analogies. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that,  in  the  following  sentences,  the  use  of  the 
word  mean  in  the  old  form  has  a  very  uncouth  appearance  :  "By  the  mean 
of  adversity  we  are  often  instructed."  '*  He  preserved  his  health  by  mean 
of  exercise."  "  Frugality  is  one  mean  of  acquiring  a  competency."  They 
should  be,  **  By  means  of  adversity,"  dec. ;  "  By  means  of  exercise,"  &c. ; 
**  Frugality  is  one  means,*'  &c. 

Good  writers  do  indeed  make  use  of  the  substantive  (1.)  mean  in  the  singu- 

(1.)  J^ouns  are  soir.jtimes  called  substantives. 


140  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

lar  number,  and  in  that  number  only,  to  signify  mediocrity,  middle  rate,  &c., 
as,  "  This  is  a  mean  between  the  two  extremes."  But  in  the  sense  of 
instrumentality,  it  has  long  been  disused  by  the  best  authors,  and  by  almost 
every  writer. 

This  means  and  that  means  should  be  used  only  when  they  refer  to  what 
is  singular ;  these  means  and  those  means,  when  they  respect  plurals ;  as, 
*'  He  lived  temperately,  and  by  tJiis  means  preserved  his  health  ;"  '*  The 
scholars  were  attentive,  industrious,  and  obedient  to  their  tutors ;  and  by 
these  Tweaws^ acquired  knowledge." 

We  have*^  enlarged  on  this  article,  that  the  young  student  may  be  led  to 
reflect  on  a  point  so  important  as  that  of  ascertaining  the  standard  of  pro- 
priety in  the  use  of  language. 

In  what  number  is  the  word  means  used  ?  What  does  Dr.  Priestley  remark 
concerning  the  use  of  this  word  ?  What  other  word  is  used  in  this  manner  ? 
What  does  Dr.  Campbell  remark  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  phrase,  "  By 
this  mean  ?"  Do  Dr.  Lowth  and  Dr.  Johnson  approve  of  the  use  of  means 
in  the  singular  number?  Do  good  writers  make  use  of  the  substantive  (1.) 
mean  in  the  singular  number?  Give  an  example.  When  should  "This 
means"  and  "  Tnat  means"  be  used  ?  When  *'  These  means"  and  "  Those 
means?" 

1. 

"Charles  was  extravagant,  and  by  "This  person  embraced   every  op- 

this    mean    became   poor    and  portunity  to  display  his  talents ; 

despicable."  and   by  these  means   rendered 

"  It  was  by  that  ungenerous  mean  himself  ridiculous." 

that  (2.)  he  obtained  his  end."  "  Joseph    was    industrious,    frugal 

"  Industry  is  the  mean  of  obtaining  and     discreet;     and     by     this 

competency."  means   obtained    property   and 

"  Though  a  promising  measure,  it  is  reputation." 

a  mean  which  I  cannot  adopt." 

2.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of  in  a  sentence,  and  there  is 
occasion  to  mention  them  again  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  that  is  used  in 
reference  to  the  former,  and  this,  in  reference  to  the  latter :  as,  '*  Self-love, 
which  is  the  spring  of  action  in  the  soul,  is  ruled  by  reason  :  but  for  thaty 
man  would  be  inactive  ;  and  but  for  this,  he  would  be  active  to  no  end." 

How  are  the  pronouns  that  and  this  used  ? 
2. 

"  Religion  raises  men  above  them-  upon  the  earth  in  lliose  than  in 

selves;    irreligion    sinks   them  these;  because  there  is  a  much 

beneath   the   brutes ;    that   (3.)  slower  evaporation." 

binds  them  down  (4.)  to  a  poor,  Rex   and  Tyrannus  are  of  very 

pitiable     speck     of    perishable  different  characters.      The  one 

earth ;  this   opens   for   them   a  (3.)  rules  his  people  by  laws  to 

prospect  to  the  skies."  which  they  consent ;  the  other, 

"More   rain  falls   in   the  first  two  (5.)  by   his   absolute   will   and 

summer   months,   than  in   the  power :  this  is  called  freedom ; 

first   two  winter   ones ;   but   it  that  (5.)  tyranny." 
makes   a   much   greater   show 

3.  The  distributive  adjective  pronouns  each,  every,  either,  agree  with  the 
nouns,  pronouns  and  verbs,  of  the  singular  number  only  ;  as,  "  The  king 
of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  each  on  his  throne  ;* 
'*  Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit ;"  unless  the  plural  noun  convey  a  col- 
lective idea ;  as,  **  Every  six  months  ;"  **  Every  hundred  years."  The  fol- 
lowing phrases  are  exceptionable:  "Let  each  esteem  others  better  than 
themselves  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  himself.*^  "  The  language  should  be  both 
perspicuous  and  correct :  in  proportion  as  either  of  these  two  quahties  are 
wanting,  the  language  is  imperfect ;"  it  should  be,  "  is  wanting."     "  Every 

(1.)  Note  1,  p.  139.  (2.)  652.  (3.)  407.    Rule  VI.  (4.)  Adverb. 

(5.)  Rule  XI. 


SYNTAX.  141 

one  of  the  letters  bear  regular  dates,  and  contain  proofs  of  attachment ;" 
*^  bears  a  regular  date,  and  contaiiisy  *'^  Every  town  and  village  were 
burned  ;  every  grove  and  every  tree  were  cut  down;"  **  was  burned,  and 
was  cut  down." 

Either  is  often  used  improperly,  instead  of  each ;  as,  "  The  king  of  Israel, 
and  Jehoshaphat  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  either  of  them  on  his  throne;" 
**  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons  of  Aaron,  took  either  of  them  his  censer." 
Each  signifies  both  of  them  taken  distinctly  or  separately ;  either  properly 
signifies  only  the  one  or  the  other  of  them,  taken  disjunctively. 

'*  The  king  of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  either  of 
them  on  their  throne."     Will  you  correct  this,  and  give  the  rule  for  it  ? 

3. 

**  Each  of  them,  in  their  (1.)  turn,  is  productive  of  much  (7.)  in- 

receive  the  benefits    to   which  ward  joy  or  bitterness." 

they  are  entitled."  "  Whatever     (8.)     he     undertakes, 

"  My  counsel  to  each  of  you  is,  that  either    (9.)    his    pride    or    his 

you  (2.)  should  make   it  your  folly  disgust  us." 

endeavor  to  come  to  a  friendly  "  Every    man    and    every    woman 

agreement."  were  numbered." 

"  By  discussing  what  (3.)  relates  to  "Neither  of  those  men  seem  to  have 

each  particular,  in  their  order,  any   idea    that    their    opinions 

we  shall  better  understand  the  may  be  ill  founded." 

subject."  "When   benignity  and    gentleness 

"Every   person,    whatever   (4.)   be  reign   within,   (7.)   we   are   al- 

their    station,   (5.)    are    bound  ways   (7.)  least  (7.)   in   hazard 

by   the  duties  of  morality  and  from  without:  (10.)  every  per- 

religion."  son  and  every  occurrence   are 

"  Every    leaf,     every     twig,     (6.)  beheld  in  the    most    favorable 

every  drop  of  water,  teem  with  light." 

life."  "On  either  side  of  the  river  was 

"  Every   man's  heart   and    temper  there  the  tree  of  life." 

4.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  improperly  applied  as  adverbs  ;  as,  **  Indif- 
ferent honest ;  excellent  well;  miserable  poor;"  instead  of  '*  Indifferently 
honest;  excellently  well ;  miserably  poor."  "He  behaved  himself  con- 
formable to  that  great  example;"  ''  conformably  ^  "Endeavor  to  live 
hereafter  suitable  to  a  person  in  thy  station ;"  "  suitably.'"  "  I  can  never 
think  so  very  mean  of  him  ;"  "  meanly.^'  "  He  describes  this  river  agree- 
able to  the  common  reading;"  ^*  agreeably  ^  "Agreeable  to  my  promise,  I 
now  write  ;"  "  agreeably."  "  Thy  exceeding  great  reward  ;"  when  united 
to  an  adjective,  or  adverb  not  ending  in  ly,  the  word  exceeding  has  Iv  added 
to  it;  as,  "  exceedingly  dreadful,  exceedingly  great ;"  "  exceedingly  well, 
exceedingly  more  active  :"  but  when  it  is  joined  to  an  adverb  or  adjective, 
having  that  termination,  the  Zy  is  omitted  ;  as,  "  Some  men  think  exceeding 
clearly,  and  reason  exceeding  forcibly;"  "  She  appeared  on  this  occasion, 
exceeding  lovely." — "  He  acted  in  this  business  bolder  than  was  expected." 
*'  They  behaved  the  noblest,  because  they  were  disinterested."  They  should 
have  been,  '■'more  boldly,  most  nobly,"  The  adjective  pronoun  such  is  often 
rnisapplied;  as,  "  He  was  such  an  extravagant  young  man,  that  he  spent 
his  whole  patrimony  in  a  few  years  ;"  it  should  be,  "  so  extravagant  a  young 
man"  "I  never  before  saw  such  large  trees;"  ^' saw  trees  so  large" 
When  we  refer  to  the  species  or  nature  of  a  thing,  the  word  such  is  properly 
applied  ;  as,  "  Such  a  temper  is  seldom  found :"  but  when  degree  is  signi- 
fied, we  use  the  word  so  ;  as,  "  So  bad  a  temper  is  seldom  found." 

Adverbs  are  likewise  improperly  used  as  adjectives ;  as,  "  The  tutor  ad- 
dressed him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but  suitably  to  his  offence  ;"  "  suitable. '''* 

(1.)  "Ais."  (2.)"A«."  (3.)  437.  (4.)  Rule  XV.  (5.)  Rule  VI. 

(6.)  Rule  XI.  (7.)  Adverb.  (8.)  Rule  VIII.  (9.)  659.  (10.)  ''from 

tDithout,'^  i.  6.  "  ertemally.'**  589, 


142  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

*'  They  were  seen  wandering  about  solitarily  and  distressed ;"  "  solitary." 
*'  He  lived  in  a  manner  agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and  religion ;" 
"  agreeable.'^  *'  The  study  of  syntax  should  be  previously  to  that  ofpunc- 
tuation  ;"  "previous." 

Young  persons  who  study  grammar,  find  it  difficult  to  decide,  in  particular 
constructions,  whether  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  ought  to  be  used.  A  few 
observations  on  this  point,  may  serve  to  inform  their  judgment,  and  direct 
their  determination.  They  should  carefully  attend  to  the  definitions  of  the 
adjective  and  the  adverb ;  and  consider  whether,  in  the  case  in  question, 
quality  or  manner  is  indicated.  In  the  former  case,  an  adjective  is  proper  ; 
in  the  latter,  an  adverb.  A  number  of  examples  will  illustrate  this  direction, 
and  prove  useful  on  other  occasions. 

"  She  looks  cold— She  looks  coldly  on  him." 
*•  He  feels  warm — He  feels  warmly  the  insult  offered  to  him." 
"  He  became  sincere  and  virtuous — He  became  sincerely  virtuous." 
"  She  lives  free  from  care— He  lives  freely  at  another's  expense." 
*'  Harriet  always  appears  neat — She  dresses  neatly." 
"  Charles  has  grown  great  by  his  wisdom — He  has  grown  greatly  in  re- 
putation." 
"*'  They  now  appear  happy — They  now  appear  happily  in  earnest." 
"  The  statement  seems  exact — The  statement  seems  exactly  in  point." 
The  verb  to  be,  in  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  generally  requires  the  word 
immediately  connected  with  it  to  be  an  adjective,  not  an  adverb  ;  and  con- 
sequently, when  this  verb  can  be  substituted  for  any  other,  without  varying 
the  sense  or  the  construction,  that  other  verb  must  also  be  connected  with 
an  adjective.    The  following  sentences  elucidate  these  observations  :  **  'J'his 
is  agreeable  to  our  interest."    "  That  behaviour  was  not  suitable  to  his  sta- 
tion."    "  Rules  should  be  conformable  to  sense."     "The  rose  smells  [is] 
sweet."  *'  Hovv  sweet  the  hay  smells  [is]  !"  **  How  delightful  the  country 
appears  [is]  !"    "  How  pleasant  the  fields  look  [are]  !"    "  The  clouds  look 
[are]  dark."     "  How  black  the  sky  looked  [was]  !"     "The  apple  tastes 
[is]  sour!"     "How  bitter  the  plums  tasted    [were]  !"     "He  feels   [is] 
happy."     In  all  these  sentences,  we  can,  with  perfect  propriety,  substitute 
some  tenses  of  the  verb  to  be,  for  the  other  verbs.     But  in  the  following 
sentences  we  cannot  do  this  :  "  The  dog  smells  disagreeably."     "  George 
feels  exquisitely."     "  How  pleasantly  she  looks  at  us  !" 

The  directions  contained  in  this  IS'ote  are  offered  as  useful,  not  as  complete 
and  unexceptionable.  Anomalies  in  language  every  where  encounter  us  ; 
but  we  must  not  reject  rules,  because  they  are  attended  with  exceptions. 

Why  is  "  indifferent  honest"  an  incorrect  expression  ?  Do  we  say,  "  ex- 
ceeding dreadful,"  and  "  exceeding  great"  ?  What,  then,  do  we  use  in  the 
place  of  exceeding  ?  When,  then,  do  we  use  exceedingly  ?  When  exceeding  ? 
"  The  tutor  addressed  him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but  suitably  to  his  of- 
fence." Why  is  this  sentence  wrong  ?  Correct  it.  How  can  we  tell  whether 
an  adjective  or  an  adverb  ought  to  be  used  ?  Which  do  we  use,  when  quahty 
is  indicated  ?  Which,  when  manner  is  indicated  f  Which  does  the  verb  fo  be 
generally  require  to  be  connected  with  it,  the  adjective  or  adverb  ?  To  illus- 
trate the  distinct  and  proper  use  of  both  the  adverb  and  adjective,  I  will  give 
you  some  examples.  Would  you  then  say,  "  He  is  dihgently  and  attentive- 
ly," or  "diligent  and  attentive"?  "  She  will  be  happy,"  or  "happily"  ? 
"  He  looks  cold,"  or  "  coldly"  ?  "  She  looks  cold  on  him."  Can  we  use 
is  for  looks,  and  make  sense  ?  Would  you,  then,  say,  "  She  looks  cold  on 
him,"  or  "  coldly  on  him"  ?  "She  lives  freely  [is]  from  care"  ?  Why? 
"  He  lives  free  at  another's  expense"  ?  "  He  feels  warmly"  ?  "  He  feels 
warm  the  insult  offered  him"  ?  "He  became  sincerely  and  virtuously"  ? 
"  He  became  sincere  virtuous"  ?  Why  ?  "  Harriet  always  appears  neatly — 
She  dresses  neat"  ?  "  Charles  has  grown  great  by  his  wisdom — He  is  grown 
great  in  his  reputation"  ?  "  They  now  appear  happily — They  now  appear 
nappy  in  earnest"  ?  "  The  statement  seems  exactly — The  statement  seems 
exact  in  point  ?"  "  How  sweetly  the  hay  smells !"  ?  "  How  delightful  tho 
country  appears !"  ?  "  How  pleasant  the  fields  look  !"  ?  "  The  clouds  iQok 
darkly"  ?    "  The  apples  taste  sourly"  ? 


SYNTAX. 


143 


4. 


*  She  reads  proper^  writes  very  nea<, 

and  composes  accurate^ 

'*  He  was  extreme  prodigal,  and  his 
property  is  now  near  exhaust- 
ed." 

'*  They  generally  succeeded ;  for 
they  lived  conformable  to  the 
rules  of  prudence." 

"  We  may  reason  very  clear  and  ex- 
ceeding strongs  without  know- 
ing that  there  is  such  a  thing 
as  a  syllogism." 

'*  He  had  many  virtues,  and  was 
exceeding  beloved.^'* 

"The  amputation  was  exceeding 
well  performed,  and  saved  the 
patient's  life." 

''  He  came  agreeable  to  his  promise, 
and  conducted  himself  suitable 
to  the  occasion." 

'*He  speaks  very  fluent,  reads  ex- 
cellent, but  does  not  think  very 
coherent." 

*  He   behaved   himself  submissive, 

and  was  exceeding  careful  not 
to  give  (1.)  offence." 

*  They  rejected  the  advice,  and  con- 

ducted themselves  exceedingly 
indiscreetly." 

*  He  is  a  person  of  great  abilities, 

and  exceeding  upright;  and  is 
like  to  be  a  very  useful  member 
(2.)  of  the  community." 


*The  conspiracy  was  the  easier 
(3.)  discovered,  from  its  (4.) 
being  known  (5.)  to  many." 

'Not  being  fully  acquainted  with 
the  subject,  he  could  affi,rm  no 
stronger  (6.)  than  he  did." 

'  He  was  so  deeply  impressed  with 
the  subject,  that  few  could  speak 
nobler  upon  it." 

'*We  may  credit  his  testimony,  for 
he  says  express,  that  he  saw  the 
transaction." 

'  Use  a  little  wine  for  thy  stomach's 
sake,  and  thine  often  (7.)  in- 
firmities." 

*  From  these  favorable  beginnings, 
we  may  hope  for  a  soon  (8.) 
and  prosperous  issue." 

'  He  addressed  several  exhortations 
to  them  suitably  to  their  cir- 
cumstances." 

'Conformably  to  their  vehemence 
of  thought,  was  their  vehemence 
of  gesture." 

'We  should  implant  in  the  minds 
of  youth  such  seeds  and  prin- 
ciples of  piety  and  virtue,  as 
(9.)  are  likely  to  take  soonest 
and  deepest  root." 

'Such  (10.)  an  amiable  disposition 
will  secure  universal  regard." 

'  Such  distinguished  virtues  seldom 
occur." 


5.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  be  avoided ;  such  as,  **  a 
worser  conduct ;"  "  on  lesser  hopes  ;"  "  a  more  serener  temper  ;"  "the 
most  straitest  sect ;"  **  a  more  superior  work."  They  should  be,  "  worse 
conduct ;"  *'  less  hopes  ;"  **  a  more  serene  temper  ;"  "  the  straitest  sect ;" 
"  a  superior  work." 

**  A  worser  conduct."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give  the  Rule 
for  it  ? 


»"Tis  more  easier  to  build  two 
chimneys  than  to  rnaintain 
one." 

"The  tongue  is  like  (11.)  a  race- 
horse, (12.)  which  runs  the 
faster  (13.)  the  lesser  weight  it 
carries." 


'  The  pleasures  of  the  understand- 
ing are  more  preferable  than 
(14.)  those  of  the  imagination, 
or  of  sense." 

'The  nightingale  sings:  hers  is 
the  most  sweetest  voice  in  the 
grove." 


(1^)  Rule  XII.  (2.)  Rule  XV.  {"i.)  ''more  easily r  (4.)  Rule  I. 

(5.)  "■being  known'''' — participial   noun.  (6.)  "  7iot  affirm  more  strongly.^* 

(7.)  "  thy  frequent.''  (8.)  "  speedy:''  (9.)  65(5.  (10.)  "  A  disposition 

so  amiable:'  &.C.  See  the  Note,  a  few  lines  before  the  close.  (11.)  Rule  IV. 

(12.)  Rule  X.— Note  XVII.  647.  (13.)  5U0.  (14.)  ''preferable  to:' 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"The  Most  Highest  hath  created  us     "The  Supreme  Being-  is  the  most 
for  his  glory,  and  for  our  own  wisest,  and    most  powerfuUest, 

happiness."  and  the  most  best  of  beings.'* 

6.  Adjectives  that  have  in  themselves  a  superlative  signification,  do  not 
properly  admit  of  the  superlative  or  comparative  form  superadded  ;  such  as 
chief,  extreme,  perfect,  right,  universal,  supreme,  <Slc.  ;  which  are  sometimes 
improperly  written  chiefest,  extremest,  perfectest,  rightest,  most  universal, 
most  supreme,  &c.  I'he  following  expressions  are,  therefore,  improper: 
"  He  sometimes  claims  admission  to  the  chiefest  offices."  "The  quarrel 
became  so  universal  and  national."  *'  A  method  of  attaining  the  rightest 
and  greatest  happiness."  The  phrases,  *' so  perfect,"  "so  right,"  "so 
extreme,"  "so  universal,"  &c.,  are  incorrect;  because  they  imply  that 
one  thing  is  less  perfect,  less  extreme,  &c.,  than  another,  which  is  not 
possible. 

Is  it  proper  to  say,  "  The  most  perfect  work  ?"  Why  not? 

6. 

"Virtue  confers  the  supremest  {1.)  "His    work    is    perfect;    (4.)    his 

dignity  on  man  ;  and  should  be  brother's,    more    perfect ;    and 

his  chiefest  desire."  his   father's,    the   most   perfect 

"His  assertion  was  moj'e  true  (2.)  of  all." 

than  that  of  his  opponent ;  nay,  "  He  gave  the  fullest  and  most  sin- 
the  words  of  the  latter  were  cere  proof  of  the  truest  friend- 
most  untrue."  (3.j  ship." 

7.  Inaccuracies  are  often  found  in  the  way  in  which  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison are  appUed  and  construed.  The  following  are  examples  of  wrong 
construction  in  this  respect :  "  This  noble  nation  hath,  of  all  others,  admit- 
ted fewer  corruptions."  The  word  fewer  is  here  construed  precisely  as  if 
it  were  the  superlative.  It  should  be,  "  This  noble  nation  hath  admitted 
fewer  corruptions  than  any  other."  We  commonly  say,  "This  is  the 
weaker  of  the  two,"  or,  "  the  weakest  of  the  two ;"  but  the  former  is  the 
regular  mode  of  expression,  because  there  are  only  two  things  compared. 
"The  vice  of  covetpusness  is  what  enters  deepest  into  the  soul  of  any 
other."  "  He  celebrates  the  church  of  England  as  the  most  perfect  of  all 
others."  Both  these  modes  of  expression  are  faulty:  we  should  not  say, 
"  the  best  of  any  man,"  or,  "  the  best  of  any  other  man,"  for,  "  the  best 
of  men."  The  sentences  may  be  corrected  by  substituting  the  compara- 
tive in  the  room  of  the  superlative  :  "  The  vice,  &c.,  is  what  enters  deeper 
into  the  soul  than  any  other."  "  He  celebrates,  &c.,  as  more  perfect  than 
any  other."  It  is  also  possible  to. retain  the  superlative,  and  render  the. 
expression  grammatical:  "  Covetousness,  of  all  vices,  enters  the  deepest, 
into.the  soul."  "  He  celebrates,  &c.,  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  churches.'*  " 
These  sentences  contain  other  errors,  against  which  it  is  proper  to  caution 
the  learner.  The  words  deeper  and  deepest,  being  intended  for  adverbs, 
should  have  been  more  deeply,  most  deeply.  The  phrases  more  perfect  and 
most  perfect  are  improper  ;  because  perfection  admits  of  no  degrees  of*com- 
parison.  We  may  say,  nearer  or  nearest  to  perfection,  or  more  or  less 
imperfect. 

In  speaking  of  two  persons,  should  we  say,  "  The  wealier  of  the  two," 
or,  "  The  weakest  of  the  two?"  Why  ? 

7. 
"  A  talent  of  this  kind  would,  per-     "  He  spoke  with  so  much  propriety, 
haps,  prove  the  likeliest  of  any  that  I  understood  him  the  best 

other  (5.)  to  succeed.'*  of  all  the  others  (6.)  who  spoke 

"  He   is  the   strongest  of  the  two,  on  the  subject." 

but  not  the  wisesf^  "  Eve  was   the   fairest  of  all  her 

daughters." 


a: 

(4.V 


)  ^^  the  supremest — supreme.''^  (2.)  "better  founded."*  (3.)  "not  true.''* 

"  well  ezectited— still  better— best.^'  (5.)  "  all."  (6.)  "  of  all  who.'" 


SYNTAX.  145 

8.  In  some  cases,  adjectives  should  not  be  separated  from  their  substan- 
tives, even  by  words  which  modify  their  meaning,  and  make  but  one  sens« 
with  them;  as,  "A  large  enough  number,  surely."  It  should  be,  "A 
number  large  enough."  **  The  lower  sort  of  people  are  good  enough 
judges  of  one  not  very  distant  from  them." 

The  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  its  substantive;  as,  "  A  generous 
man ;"  "  How  amiable  a  woman  !"  The  instances  in  which  it  comes  after 
the  substantive,  are  the  following  : 

1st.  When  something  depends  upon  the  adjective  ;  and  when  it  gives  a 
better  sound,  especially  in  poetry  ;  as,  *'  A  man  generous  to  his  enemies ;" 
"  Feed  me  with  food  convenient  for  me  ;"  "A  tree  three  feet  thick  ;"  "A 
body  of  troops  fifty  thousand  strong;''^  "The  torrent  tumbling  through  ' 
rocks  abrupt^ 

2d.  When  the  adjective  is  emphatical;  as,  ''Alexander  the  Great ;^* 
'*  Lewis  the  Bold  ;"   **  Goodness  infinite ;"   "  Wisdom  unsearchable,*^ 

3d.  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  one  substantive;  as,  "  A  man 
just,  wise,  and  charitable  ;"   "A  woman  modest,  sensible,  and  virtuous." 

4tli.  When  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  an  adverb  ;  as,  "A  boy  regularly 
studious  ;"  "A  girl  unaffectedly  modest." 

5th.  When  the  verb  to  be,  in  any  of  its  variations,  comes  between  a  sub- 
stantive and  an  adjective,  the  adjective  may  frequently  either  precede  or 
follow  it ;  as,  "  The  man  is  happy,**  or,  '*  Happy  is  the  man,  who  makes 
virtue  his  choice  :"  "  The  interview  was  delightful ;"  or,  **  Delightful  was 
the  interview." 

6th.  When  the  adjective  expresses  some  circumstance  of  a  substantive 
placed  after  an  active  verb ;  as,  "  Vanity  often  renders  its  possessors  despica- 
ble.** In  an  exclamatory  sentence,  the  adjective  generally  precedes  the 
substantive  ;  as,  "  How  despicable  does  vanity  often  render  its  possessor!" 

There  is  sometimes  great  beauty,  as  well  as  force,  in  placing  the  adjective 
before  the  verb,  and  the  substantive  immediately  after  it ;  as,  "  Great  is  the 
Lord  !  just  and  true  are  thy  ways,  thou  King  of  saints  !" 

Sometimes  the  word  all  is  emphatically  put  after  a  number  of  particulars 
comprehended  under  it.  "Ambition,  interest,  honor,  all  concurred."  Some- 
times a  substantive,  which  likewise  comprehends  the  preceding  particulars, 
is  used  in  conjunction  with  this  adjective ;  as,  "  Royahsts,  republicans, 
churchmen,  sectaries,  courtiers,  all  parties,  concurred  in  the  illusion." 

An  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  plural  number,  will  sometimes  properly  as- 
sociate with  a  singular  noun  ;  as,  "  Our  desire,  your  intention,  their  resigna- 
tion." This  association  applies  rather  to  things  of  an  intellectual  nature, 
than  to  those  which  are  corporeal.    It  forms  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

A  substantive  with  its  adjective  is  reckoned  as  one  compounded  word ; 
whence  they  often  take  another  adjective,  and  sometimes  a  third,  and  so 
on;  as,  "An  old  man;  a  good  old  man;  a  very  learned,  judicious,  good 
old  man." 

"  Though  the  adjective  always  relates  to  a  substantive,  it  is,  in  many  in- 
stances, put  as  if  it  were  absolute  ;  especially  where  the  noun  has  been 
mentioned  before,  or  easily  understood,  though  not  expressed ;  as,  "  I  often 
survey  it." 

Is  it  correct  to  say,  "  A  large  enough  number"  ?  How  should  it  be  alter- 
ed ?  What  is  the  Note  for  it  ?  Should  the  adjective  be  placed  usually  before 
or  after  the  noun  ? 

8. 

"He    spoke   in  a   distinct  enough  pair  of  gloves :  he  is  the  servant 

manner    to    be    heard    by  the  of  an  old  rich  (2.)  man." 

whole  assembly."  "The  two  first  (3.)  in  the  row  are 

"Thomas  is  equipped  with  a  new  cherry-trees,  the  ttoo  others  are 

(1.)  pair  of  shoes,  and  a  new  pear-trees." 

(l,)  *' a  pair  of  new  shoes:'  (2.)  '' rich  oW  (3.)  Note  I.— Rule  VI. 

10 


146  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

HITI4I!  ZI. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar. 
RULE   IX. 

The  indefinite  article,  a  or  an,  belongs  to  nouns  of  the 
singular  number. 

TLXJlsH    III. 

TTie  definite  article,  the,  belongs  to  nouns  of  the  singu- 
lar or  plural  numbers. 

The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted :  when  used,  they  should  be  justly 
applied,  according  to  their  distinct  nature  ;  as,  '*  Gold  is  corrupting  ;  the  sea 
is  green;  a  hon  is  bold." 

It  is  the  nature  of  both  the  articles  to  determine  or  limit  the  thing  spoken 
of.  A  determines  it  to  be  one  single  thing  of  the  kind,  leaving  it  still  un- 
certain which  ;  the  determines  which  it  is,  or,  if  many,  which  they  are. 

The  following  passage  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the  different  vses  of  a 
and  the,  and  of  the  force  of  the  substantive  without  any  article  :  '*  Man  was 
made  for  society,  and  ought  to  extend  his  good  will  to  all  men  ;  but  a  man 
will  naturally  entertain  a  more  particular  kindness  for  the  men  with  whom 
he  has  the  most  frequent  intercourse  ;  and  enter  into  a  still  closer  union 
with  the  man  whose  temper  and  disposition  suit  best  with  his  own." 

As  the  articles  are  sometimes  misapplied,  it  may  be  of  some  use  to  ex- 
hibit a  few  instances  :  *'  And  I  persecuted  this  way  unto  the  death."  The 
apostle  does  not  mean  any  particular  sort  of  death,  but  death  in  general  : 
the  definite  article,  therefore,  is  improperly  used :  it  ought  to  be,  "unto 
death,"  without  any  article. 

*'  When  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you  into  all  truth;" 
that  is,  according  to  this  translation,  "into  all  truth  whatsoever,  into  truth 
of  all  kinds;" — very  different  from  the  meaning  of  the  evangelist,  and  from 
the  original,  "into  all  the  truth;"  that  is,  "into  all  evangelical  truth,  all 
truth  necessary  for  you  to  know." 

"  Who  breaks  a  butterfly  upon  a  wheel.?"  it  ought  to  be  "  the  wheel," 
used  as  an  instrument  for  the  particular  purpose  of  torturing  criminals. 
"  The  Almighty  hath  given  reason  -to  a  man  to  be  a  light  unto  him :"  it 
should  rather  be,  "  to  man,''''  in  general.  "  This  day  is  salvation  come  to 
this  house,  forasmuch  as  he  also  is  the  son  of  Abraham:"  it  ought  to  be, 
"  a  son  of  Abraham." 

These  remarks  may  serve  to  show  the  great  importance  of  the  proper  use 
of  the  article,  and  the  excellence  of  the  English  language  in  this  respect ; 
which,  by  means  of  its  two  articles,  does  most  precisely  determine  the 
extent  of  signification  of  common  names. 

What  is  the  nature  of  the  articles  ?  What  does  the  article  a  determine  ? 
What  the  article  the  ? 

**  The  fire,  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the     "  (4.)  Wisest  and   best  men  some- 
water,  are  four  elements  (1.)  of  times  commit  errors." 
the  philosophers."                             "  Beware   of  drunkenness ;    it   im- 
" Reason   was   given  to  a   man  to  pairs     understanding;     wastes 
control  his  passions."  an   estate ;    destroys   a   reputa- 
•*  We  have  within  us  an  intelligent  tion  ;  consumes  the  body  ;  and 
principle,  distinct  from  (2.)  body            renders    the   (5.)    man    of  the 
and  from  matter."                                    brightest    parts    the    (5.)    com- 
•♦  A  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  (3.)            mon  jest  (6.)   of  the   meanest 
creation."                                                 clown." 

(1.)  "  Fire,  air,"  &c. "  the  four ;"  &c.  (2.)  "  the  body."  (3.)  "  the 

creation."  (4.)  "  The  wisest."  (5.)  "  a."  (6.)  Rule  XV 


SYNTAX. 


147 


"  He  is  a  much  better  writer  than  a 
reader." 

"The  king  has  conferred  on  him 
the  title  of  a  duke." 

**  There  are  some  evils  of  life  which 
equally  affect  prince  and  peo- 
ple." 

**  We  must  act  our  part  with  a  con- 
stancy,  though  reward  of  our 
constancy  be  (1.)  distant." 

"  We  are  placed  here  under  a  trial 
of  our  virtue." 

**  The  virtues  like  his  are  not  easily 
acquired.  Such  qualities  honor 
the  nature  of  a  man.'* 


"Purity  has  its  seat  in  the  heart, 
but  extends  its  influence  over 
so  much  of  outward  conduct, 
as  to  form  the  great  and  ma- 
terial part  of  a  character." 

"The  profligate  man  is  seldom  or 
never  found  to  be  the  good  hus- 
band, the  good  father,  or  the 
beneficent  neighbor." 

"True  charity  is  not  the  meteor 
which  occasionally  glares,  but 
the  luminary  which,  in  its 
orderly  and  regular  course, 
dispenses  benignant  influ- 
ence." 


1.  A  nice  distinction  of  the  sense  is  sometimes  made  by  the  use  or  omis- 
sion of  the  article  a.  If  I  say,  "  He  behaved  with  a  little  reverence,"  my 
meaning  is  positive.  If  I  say,  "  He  behaved  with  httle  reverence,"  my 
meaning  is  negative.  And  these  two  are  by  no  means  the  same,  or  to  be 
used  in  the  same  cases.  By  the  former,  I  rather  praise  a  person;  by  the 
latter,  I  dispraise  him.  For  the  sake  of  this  distinction,  which  is  a  very 
useful  one,  we  may  better  bear  the  seeming  impropriety  of  the  article  a 
before  nouns  of  number.  When  I  say,  "  There  were  few  men  with  him," 
I  speak  diminutively,  and  mean  to  represent  them  as  inconsiderable : 
whereas,  when  I  say,  "  There  were  a  few  men  with  him,"  I  evidently 
intend  to  make  the  most  of  them. 

What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  expressions,  *'  We  be- 
haved with  a  hitle  reverence,"  and,  '*  We  behaved  with  little  reverence  ?" 

1. 

"He  has  been  much  censured  for 


conducting  himself  with  a  lit- 
tle attention  to  his  business," 

"  So  bold  a  breach  of  order  called 
for  (2.)  little  severity  in  punish- 
ing the  offender." 

"His  error  was  accompanied  with 
so  little  contrition  and  candid 
acknowledgment,  that  he  found 
a  few  persons  to  intercede  for 
him." 


"There  were  so  many  mitigating 
(3.)  circumstances  attending 
his  misconduct,  particularly 
that  (4.)  of  his  open  confes- 
sion, that  he  found  (5.)  few 
friends  who  were  disposed  to 
interest  themselves  in  his  fa- 
vor." 

"  As  his  misfortunes  were  the  fruit 
of  his  own  obstinacy,  a  few  per- 
sons pitied  him." 


2.  In  general,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  prefix  the  article  to  the  former  of 
two  words  in  the  same  construction  ;  though  the  French  never  fail  to  repeat 
it  in  this  case.  "There  were  many  hours,  both  of  the  night  and  day, 
which  he  could  spend,  without  suspicion,  in  solitary  thought."  It  might 
have  been,  "  of  the  night  and  of  tJie  day."  And,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
we  often  repeat  the  article  in  a  series  of  epithets.  "  He  hoped  that  this 
title  would  secure  him  an  ample  and  an  independent  authority." 

Is  the  article  to  be  repeated  before  two  words  in  the  same  construction  ? 


2. 


"  The  fear  of  shame,  (6.)  the  desire 
of  approbation,  prevent  many 
bad  actions." 

"  In  this  business  he  was  influenced 
by  a  just  and  (7.)  generous  prin- 
ciple." 


'  He  was  fired  with  desire  of  doing 
something,  though  he  knew  not 
yet,  with  distinctness,  either  end 
or  means." 


(I.)  464. 
Rule  XIV. 


(2.)  "fl  little." 
(5.)  "a  few.' 


(3.)  559.         (4.)  ••  that  circuvutanee,^'  Note  I.— 
359.  (6.)  ••  and  the."  (7.)  "  a  generous  »• 


148  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  In  common  conversation,  and  in  familiar  style,  we  frequently  omit  the 
articles,  which  might  be  inserted  with  propriety  in  writing,  especially  in  a 
grave  style.  **  At  worst,  time  might  be  gained  by  this  expedient."  "  At 
the  worst"  would  have  been  better  in  this  place.  "  Give  me  here  John 
Baptist's  head."  There  would  have  been  more  dignity  in  saying,  "  John 
the  Baptist's  head ;"  or,  "  The  head  of  John  the  Baptist." 

The  article  the  has  sometimes  a  good  effect  in  distinguishing  a  person  by 
an  epithet.  "  In  the  history  of  Henry  the  Fourth,  by  Father  Daniel,  we 
are  surprised  at  not  finding  him  the  great  man."  "  I  own  I  am  often  sur- 
prised that  he  should  have  treated  so  coldly  a  man  so  much  the  gentleman." 

This  article  is  often  elegantly  put,  after  the  manner  of  the  French,  for 
the  pronoun  possessive  ;  as,  **  He  looks  him  full  in  the  face  ;"  that  is,  "  in 
his  face."  "In  his  presence  they  were  to  strike  the  forehead  on  the 
ground  ;"  that  is,  "  their  foreheads.^^ 

We  sometimes,  according  to  the  French  manner,  repeat  the  same  article, 
when  the  adjective,  on  account  of  any  clause  depending  u^n  it,  is  put  after 
the  substantive.  "  Of  all  the  considerable  governments  among  the  Alps,  a 
commonwealth  is  a  constitution  the  most  adapted  of  any  to  the  poverty  of 
those  countries."  "With  such  a  specious  title  as  that  of  blood,  which, 
with  the  multitude,  is  always  a  claim  the  strongest,  and  the  most  easily 
comprehended."  "  They  are  not  the  men  in  the  nation  the  most  difficult 
to  be  replaced." 

*'  At  worst,  time  might  be  gained,"  (fee.  What  word  may  properly  be 
inserted  in  the  beginning  of  this  sentence  ?  What  is  the  Note  for  it  ? 

3. 

*'  At  worpt,  I  could  but  incur  a  gen-     "  At  best,  his  gifl  was  but  a  poor 
tie  reprimand.'*  offering,  when  we  consider  his 

estate." 

Rxriiis  X. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar. 
RULE  X. 

The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following  noun. 

When  the  annexed  substantive  signifies  the  same  thing  as  the  first,  there 
is  no  variation  of  case  ;  as,  "  George,  king  of  Great  Britain,  elector  of 
Hanover,"  &c. ;  "  Pompey  contended  with  Caesar,  the  greatest  general 
of  his  time;"  "Religion,  the  support  of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity." 
Nouns  thus  circumstanced  are  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  The 
interposition  of  a  relative  and  verb  will  sometimes  break  the  construction  ; 
as,  "  Pompey  contended  with  Caesar,  who  was  the  greatest  general  of  his 
time."  Here  the  word  general  is  in  the  nominative  case,  according  to  Rule 
XV.,  or  Note  4,  under  jR.ule  VIH. 

The  preposition  of,  joined  to  a  substantive,  is  not  always  equivalent  to  the 
possessive  case.  It  is  only  so,  when  the  expression  can  be  converted  into 
the  regular  form  of  the  possessive  case.  We  can  say,  "the  reward  of 
virtue,  '  and,  "  virtue's  reward  ;"  but  though  it  is  proper  to  say,  "  a  crown 
of  gold,"  we  cannot  convert  the  (expression  into  the  possessive  case,  and 
say,  "  gold's  crown." 

Substantives  govern  pronouns  as  well  as  nouns,  in  the  possessive  case ; 
as,  "  Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit ;"  "  Goodness  brings  its  reward ;" 
"  That  desk  is  miney 

The  genitive  (1.)  its  is  often  improperly  used  for  H  is  or  it  is  ;  as,  "  Its 
my  book  ;"  instead  of,  "  It  is  my  book." 

The  pronoun  his,  when  detached  from  the  noun  to  which  it  relates,  is  to  be 
considered,  not  as  a  possessive  pronoun,  but  as  the  genitive  case  of  the  per- 
sonal pronoun;  as,  "  This  composition  is  hisJ'^  "  Whose  book  is  that?" 
"  His.^^    If  we  used  the  noun  itself7we  should  say,  "  This  composition  is 

(1.)  Or  possessive. 


SYNTAX.  149 

John*8.'*  "  Whose  book  is  that  ?"  "  Eliza's."  The  position  will  be  still 
more  evident,  when  we  consider  that  both  the  pronouns  in  the  following 
sentences  must  have  a  similar  construction :  **  Is  it  her  or  Ids  honor  that  is 
tarnished  ?"   "  It  is  not  hers,  but  Ais." 

Sometimes  a  substantive  in  the  ge^nitive  or  possessive  case  stands  alone, 
the  latter  one  by  which  it  is  governed  being  understood ;  as,  "I  called  at 
the  bookseller's,"  that  is,  "  at  the  bookseller's  shop'^ 

*'  Religion,  the  support  of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity."  What  is  said  of 
the  nouns  religion,  and  support,  in  respect  to  each  other  ?  When  is  the  pre- 
position of  joined  to  a  substantive  equivalent  to  the  possessive  case  ?    Give 
an  example. 
"  My  ancestors  virtue  is  not  mine."     "  A    mothers    tenderness,    and    a 

(1.)  fathers   care   are  natures  gifts 

**  His  brothers  offence  will  not  con-  for  mans  advantage." 

demn  him."  "A  mans   manners'  frequently  in- 

"  I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten  fluence  his  fortune." 

sake."  "Wisdoms     precepts'     form     the 

"Nevertheless,  Asa    his   heart  (2.)  good   mans   interest  and    hap- 

was  perfect  with  the  Lord."  piness." 

"  They  slew   Varus,  he    that    was     "  They  slew  Varus,  who  was  him 
mentioned  before."  that  I  mentioned  before." 

1.  If  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  genitive  (3.)  case,  the  apostrophe 
with  s  is  annexed  to  the  last,  and  understood  to  the  rest ;  as,  "  John  and 
Eliza's  books;"  "  This  was  my  father,  mother  and  uncle's  advice."  But 
when  any  words  intervene,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  increased  pause,  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  should  be  annexed  to  each;  as,  "  They  are  John's 
as  well  as  Eliza's  books  ;"  "  I  had  the  physician's,  the  surgeon's  and  the 
apothecary's  assistance."  ' 

"  John's  and  EUza's  books."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give 
the  Rule  for  it  ? 

1. 
**  It   was   the  men*s,  (4.)   women's     "  This   measure  gained   the    king, 
(5.)  and  children's  lot  to  suffer  as  well  as  the   people's  appro- 

great  calamities."  bation." 

'^Pcter^Sy     John's     and     Andrew's     "Not  only   the    counsel's   and   at- 
occupation,  was  that  of  fisher-  torney's  but  the  judge's  opinion 

men."  also,  favored  his  cause." 

2.  In  poetry,  the  additional  s  is  frequently  omitted,  but  the  apostrophe  re- 
tained, in  the  same  manner  as  in  substantives  of  the  plural  number  ending 
in  s  ;  as,  "  The  wrath  of  Peleus'  son."  This  seems  not  so  allowable  in 
prose,  which  the  following  erroneous  example  will  demonstrate:  *'  Moses' 
minister ;"  "  Phinehas'  wife ;"  *'  Festus  came  into  Felix'  room  ;"  "  These 
answers  were  made  to  the  witness'  questions."  But  in  cases  which  would 
give  too  much  of  the  hissing  sound,  or  increase  the  difficulty  of  pronuncia- 
tion, the  omission  takes  place  even  in  prose;  as,  "For  righteousness* 
sake  ;"  **  For  conscience'  sake." 

Is  the  additional  s  ever  omitted  ?    Give  an  example. 

2. 

"  And    he  cast    himself   down    at    "  If  ye  suffer   for    righteousness's 
Jesus  feet."  sake,  happy  are  ye." 

*^ Moses    rod    was    turned    into    a     "Ye  should    be   subject    for    con- 
serpent."  science's  sake." 

"For    Herodias  sake,   his    brother 
Philips  wife." 

(1.)  Rule  I.         (2.)  "  Asa's  hearty         (3.)  Or  possessive.        (4.)  •*  Men**  is  here 
in  the  possessive  case,  the  apostrophe  being  understood;  therefore  apply  Rule  I. 
(5.)  "  Men,  women ;"  or  "  It  was  the  lot  qf"  &c. 
13* 


150  EN  GLISPI  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Little  explanatory  circumstances  are  particularly  awkward  between  a 
genitive  case  and  the  word  which  usually  follows  it;  as,  "  She  began  to 
extol  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  understanding."  It  ought 
to  be,  **  the  excellent  understanding  of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him." 

**  She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  under- 
standing."    Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give  the  Rule  for  it  ? 

3. 
"  They  very  justly  condemned   the     "  They  implicitly  obeyed  the   pro- 
prodigal's,   as    he    was    called,  lector's,    as    they    called    him, 
senseless  and  extravagant  con-            imperious  mandates." 
duct."  (1.) 

4.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  terms  signifying  a  name  and  an  office,  or 
of  any  expressions  by  which  one  part  is  descriptive  or  explanatory  of  the 
other,  it  may  occasion  some  doubt  to  which  of  them  the  sign  of  the  genitive 
case  should  be  annexed ;  or  whether  it  should  be  subjoined  to  them  both. 
Thus,  some  would  say,  "I  left  the  parcel  at  Smith's  the  bookseller;"  others, 
*'  at  Smith  the  bookseller's  ;"  and  perhaps  others,  "  at  Smith's  the  book- 
seller's." The  first  of  these  forms  is  most  agreeable  to  the  English  idiom  ; 
and  if  the  addition  consists  of  two  or  more  words,  the  case  seems  to  be  less 
dubious  ;  as,  "I  left  the  parcel  at  Smith's,  the  bookseller  and  stationer."  But 
as  this  subject  requires  a  httle  further  explanation,  to  make  it  intelligible  to 
the  learners,  we  shall  add  a  few  observations  tending  to  unfold  its  principles. 

A  phrase  in  which  the  words  are  so  connected  and  dependent,  as  to  admit 
of  no  pause  before  the  conclusion,  necessarily  requires  the  genitive  sign  at 
or  near  the  end  of  the  phrase  ;  as,  "  Whose  prerogative  is  it  ?"  "  It  is  the 
king  of  Great  Britain's;"  "That  is  the  duke  of  Bridgewater's  canal;" 
**  The  bishop  of  Landaff's  excellent  book;"  "The  Lord  Mayor  of  Lon- 
don's authority  ;"  "  The  captain  of  the  guard's  house." 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  quick  succession,  it  seems 
also  most  agreeable  to  our  idiom,  to  give  the  sign  of  the  genitive  a  similar 
situation ;  especially  if  the  noun  which  governs  the  genhive  be  expressed  ; 
as,  "  The  emperor  Leopold's ;"  "  Dionysius  the  tyrant's;"  "For  David 
my  servanVs  sake;"  "  Give  me  John  the  Baptist's  head;"  "  Paul  the 
apostle's  advice."  But  when  a  pause  is  proper,  and  the  governing  noun  not 
expressed  ;  and  when  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  is  extended  ;  it  appears 
to  be  requisite  that  the  sign  should  be  applied  to  the  first  genitive,  and  un- 
derstood to  the  other;  as,  "  I  reside  at  lord  Stormont's,  my  old  patron  and 
benefactor;"  "Whose  glory  did  he  emulate?  He  emulated  Ccesar's,  the 
greatest  general  of  antiquity."  In  the  following  sentences,  it  would  be  very 
awkward  to  place  the  sign  either  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  clauses,  or  at  the 
end  of  the  latter  one  alone  :  "  These  psalms  are  David's,  the  king,  priest, 
and  prophet  of  the  Jewish  people  ;"  "  We  staid  a  month  at  lord  Lyltleton's, 
the  ornament  of  his  country,  and  the  friend  of  every  virtue."  The  sign  of 
the  genitive  case  may  very  properly  be  understood  at  the  end  of  these  mem- 
bers, an  ellipsis  at  the  latter  part  of  sentences  being  a  common  construction 
in  our  language  ;  as  the  learner  will  see  by  one  or  two  examples  :  "  They 
wished  to  submit,  but  he  did  not;"  that  is,  "  he  did  not  wish  to  submit.^* 
"  He  said  it  was  their  concern,  but  not  his  ;"  that  is,  not  Jiis  concern^ 

If  we  annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  last  clause  only,  we 
shall  perceive  that  a  resting-place  is  wanted,  and  that  the  connecting  circum- 
stance is  placed  too  remotely,  to  be  either  perspicuous  or  agreeable  ;  as, 
**  Whose  glory  did  he  emulate  ?  He  emulated  Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of 
antiquity^ s  ,*"  "  These  psalms  are  David,  the  king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the 
Jewish 7)eopZe'5."  It  is  much  better  to  say,  "  This  is  PauVs  advice,  the  Chris- 
tian hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the  gentiles,"  than  "  This  is  Paul  the  Christian 
hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the  gentiles'  advice."  On  the  other  hand,  the  ap- 
plication of  the  genitive  sign  to  both  or  all  of  the  nouns  in  apposition,  would 
be  generally  harsh  and  displeasing,  and  perhaps  in  some  cases  incorrect ; 
as,  "The  emperor's  Leopold's  ;'     "King's  George's;"    "Charles's  the 

(1.)  "  the  senseless^'"  &,c. "  qf  the  prodigal,  as  he  loas  called^'' 


SYNTAX.  151 

Second's;"  '*  The  parcel  was  left  at  Smith's  the  bookseller's  and  station- 
er's." The  rules  which  we  have  endeavored  to  elucidate  will  prevent  the 
inconvenience  of  both  these  modes  of  expression ;  and  they  appear  to  be 
simple,  perspicuous,  and  consistent  with  the  idiom  of  the  language. 

Which  is  most  agreeable  to  the  English  idiom,  to  say,  '*  Smith's  llic 
bookseller,"  or,  **  Smith  the  bookseller's?"  When  the  words  are  comuct- 
ed  and  dependent,  where  is  the  genitive  (1.)  sign  to  be  placed  ? 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  quick  succession,  where 
should  the  sign  of  the  genitive  be  placed  ?  What  effect  is  perceived  if  we 
annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  last  clause  only  of  the  sen- 
tence ?  Give  an  example.  What  is  the  effect  of  applying  the  genitive  sign 
to  both  or  all  the  nouns  in  apposition  ?  Give  an  example. 

4. 

"  I  bought  the  knives  at  Johnson's     "  I  will  not  for  David's  thy  father's 

(2.)  the  cutler's:'  (3.)  sake." 

"  The  silk  was  purchased  at  Brown's  «  tt    ♦    i       r          ♦  ^u 

,,                f       J  1.  I.    J    7.    »   M  He  took  refuse  at  the  governor, 

the  mercers  and  haberdasher  s.  xu    i  •     »                  **•?»> 

"Lord    Feversham    the    general's  the  king  s  representative  s. 

tent."  (4.)  "  Whose    (5.)    works     are     these  ? 

•*  This  palace  had  been  the  grand  They  are  Cicero,  the  most  elo- 

sultan's  Mahomet's."  quent  of  men's." 

5.  The  English  genitive  has  often  an  unpleasant  sound ;  so  that  we  daily 
make  more  use  of  the  particle  of,  to  express  the  same  relation.  There  is 
something  awkward  in  the  following  sentences,  in  which  this  method  has 
not  been  taken:  *'  The  general,  in  the  army's  namd,  published  a  declara- 
tion ;"  "  The  commons'  vote  ;"  '*  The  lords'  house  ;"  "  Unless  he  is  very 
ignorant  of  the  kingdom's  condition."  It  were  certainly  better  to  say,  *'  In 
the  name  of  the  army ;"  '*  The  votes  of  the  commons  ;"  '*  The  house  of 
lords  ;"  "  The  condition  of  the  kingdom."  It  is'  also  rather  harsh  to  use 
two  EngHsh  genitives  with  the  same  substantive  ;  as,  "  Whom  he  acquaint- 
ed with  the  pope's  and  the  king's  pleasure."  *'  The  pleasure  of  the  pope 
and  the  king,"  would  have  been  better. 

^  We  sometimes  meet  with  three  substantives  dependent  on  one  another, 
and  connected  by  the  preposition  of  applied  to  each  of  them;  as,  "  The 
severity  of  the  distress  of  the  son  of  the  king,  touched  the  nation;"  but 
this  mode  of  expression  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  would  be  better  to 
say,  "  The  severe  distress  of  the  king's  son  touched  the  nation."  We 
have  a  striking  instance  of  this  laborious  mode  of  expression,  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence  :  "  Of  some  of  the  books  of  each  of  these  classes  of  litera- 
ture, a  catalogue  will  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  work." 

"In  the  army's  name."  How  may  this  expression  be  altered  for  the 
better  ? 

5. 
**  The   world's   government   is  not     "  It  was  necessary  to  have  both  the 

left  to  chance."  (6.)    .  physician's   and   the   surgeon's 

"  She  married  my  son's  wife's  bro~  advice."  (9.) 

ther."  (7.)  »*  The  extent  of  the  prerogative  of 

"  This  is  my  wife's  brother's  part-  the    king  of   England   is   suf- 

ner's  house."  (8.)  ficiently  ascertained." 

6.  In-some  cases,  we  use  both  the  genitive  termination  and  the  preposition 
of  ;  as,  '*  It  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's."  Sometimes,  indeed,  un- 
less we  throw  the  sentence  into  another  form,  this  method  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  to  give  the  idea  of  property,  strict- 


(1.)  Or  possessive.  (2.)  "  Johnson's  sAop."  Rule  I.  (3.)  "  cwtZcr."  See 

I!?ote  I.  under  this  Rule.         (4.)  "  The  tent  qf  lord;'  &c.  (5.)  431.         (6.)  "  Ths 

government  of  the  worlds  (7.)  "  the  brother  of  my  Bon's  wife."  (8.)  "  This 

liouse  helov.gs  to  the  partner  of  my  wife's  brother"  (D.)  "  the  advice  both  of." 


153  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ly  so  called,  which  is  the  most  important  of  the  relations  expressed  by  the 
genitive  case  ;  for  the  expressions,  "  This  picture  of  my  friend,"  and,  "  This 
picture  of  my  friend's,"  suggest  very  different  ideas.  The  latter  only  is  that 
of  property,  in  the  strictest  sense.  The  idea  would,  doubtless,  be  conveyed 
in  a  better  manner,  by  saymg,  "  This  picture,  belonging  to  my  friend." 

When  this  double  genitive,  as  some  grammarians  term  it,  is  not  necessary 
to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  especially  in  a  grave  style,  it  is  generally  omit- 
ted. Except  to  prevent  ambiguity,  it  seems  to  be  allowable  only  in  cases 
which  suppose  the  existence  of  a  plurality  of  subjects  of  the  same  kind.  In 
the  expressions,  "  A  subject  of  the  emperor's  ;"  "A  sentiment  of  my  bro- 
ther's ;"  more  than  one  subject,  and  one  sentiment,  are  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  possessor.  But  when  this  plurahty  is  neither  intimated,  nor  neces- 
sarily supposed,  the  double  genitive,  except  as  before  mentioned,  should  not 
be  used  ;  as,  "  This  house  of  the  governor  is  very  commodious  ;"  "  The 
crown  of  the  king  was  stolen;"  '*  That  privilege  of  the  scholar  was  never 
abused."  But,  after  all  that  can  be  said  for  this  double  genitive,  as  it  is 
termed,  some  grammarians  think  that  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  the  use 
of  it  altogether,  and  to  give  the  sentiment  another  form  of  expression. 

Are  there  any  cases  in  which  we  use  both  the  genitive  termination  and  the 
preposition  ofl  Give  an  example.     Is  this  double  genitive  ever  omitted  ? 

6. 
"  That   picture  of  the   king\s  does     "  This  estate  of  the  corporation's  is 

not  much  resemble  (1.)  him."  much  encumbered." 

"  These   pictures    of  the    king  (2.)     "  That  is  the  eldest  son  of  the  king 

were  sent  to  him  from  Italy."  of  England's." 

7.  When  an  entire  clause  of  a  sentence,  beginning  with  a  participle  of  the 
present  tense,  is  used  as  one  name,  or  to  express  one  idea  or  circumstance, 
the  noun  on  which  it  depends  may  be  put  in  the  genhive  case :  thus,  instead 
of  saying,  "What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  servant  so 
hastily  ?"  that  is,  "  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  in  dismissing  his  ser- 
vant so  hastily?"  we  may  say,  and  perhaps  ought  to  say,  "What  is  the 
reason  of  this  person's  dismissing  of  his  servant  so  hastily  ?"  just  as  v^e 
say,  "  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person's  hasty  dismission  of  his  servant?" 
So  also  we  say,  "  I  remember  it  being  reckoned  a  great  exploit ;"  or,  more 
properly,  "  I  remember  its  being  reckoned,"  &c.  The  following  sentence 
is  correct  and  proper:  "  Much  will  depend  on  the  pupiVs  composing,  but 
more  on  his  reading  frequently."  It  would  not  be  accurate  to  say,  "  Much 
will  depend  on  the  pupil  composing"  &c.  We  also  properly  say,  "  This 
will  be  the  effect  oj  the  pupil  s  composing  frequently  ;"  instead  of,  "  of  the 
pupil  composing  frequently." 

"  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  servant  so  hastily  ?" 
Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give  the  rule  for  it  ? 


**  What  (3.)  can  be  the  cause  of  the  the  Hollanders  their  throwing 

parliament   neglecting    so   im-  off    the    monarchy    of   Spain, 

portant  a  business."  and   their  withdrawing   entire- 

"  Much  depends  on  this  rule  being  ly     their    allegiance    to    that 

observed."  crown." 

"  The    time    of    William    making  "  If  we  alter  the  situation  of  any  of 

the   experiment,   at  length  ar-  the   words,  we   shall   pcesently 

rived."  be  sensible  of  the  melody  suffer- 

**It  is  very  probable  that  this   as-  ing." 

sembly    was     called,    to    clear  "Such  will   ever   be   the  effect  of 

some    doubt   which    the    king  youth  associating  with  vicious 

had    about   the   lawfulness   of  companions." 

(1.)  586.       (2.)  Or,  "  These  pictures  belonging  to  the  king,''  &c.       (3.)  Rule  XV 


SYNTAX.  153 

RUI.B  VIIZ. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XL 

Active  transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case. 

In  English,  the  nominative  case,  denoting  the  subject,  usually  goes  before 
the  verb ;  and  the  objective  case,  denoting  the  object,  follows  the  verb  ac- 
tive ;  and  it  is  the  order  that  determines  the  case  in  ?iouns  ;  as,  "  Alexander 
conquered  the  Persians."  But  the  pronoun,  having  a  proper  form  for  each 
of  those  cases,  is  sometimes,  when  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  placed  before 
the  verb ;  and,  when  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  follows  the  object  and 
verb  ;  as  "  Wham  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you." 

This  position  of  the  pronoun  sometimes  occasions  its  proper  case  and 

fovernment  to  be  neglected  ;  as  in  the  following  instances:  "  Who  should 
esteem  more  than  the  wise  and  good?"  "  By  the  character  of  those  who 
you  choose  for  your  friends,  your  own  is  likely  to  be  formed,"  Those  are 
the  persons  who  he  thought  true  to  his  interests."  "  Who  should  I  see  the 
other  day  but  my  old  friend?"  "Whosoever  the  court  favors."  In  all 
these  places,  it  ought  to  be  whom,  the  relative  being  governed  in  the  objective 
case  by  the  verbs  esteem,  choose,  thought,  &c.  "He,  who,  under  all  proper 
circumstances,  has  the  boldness  to  speak  truth,  choose  for  thy  friend;"  it 
should  be  "■him  who,"  &c. 

Verbs  neuter  and  intransitive  do  not  act  upon,  or  govern,  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. "He  sleeps,^'  "they  muse,^^  &c.,  are  not  transitive.  They  are, 
therefore,  not  followed  by  an  objective  case,  specifying  the  object  of  an  ac- 
tion. But  when  this  case,  or  an  object  of  action,  comes  after  such  verbs, 
though  it  may  carry  the  appearance  of  being  governed  by  them,  it  is  affected 
by  a  preposition  or  some  other  word  understood;  as,  "He  resided  many 
years  [that  is,  for  or  during  many  years]  in  that  street ;"  "He  rode  several 
miles  [that  is,  for  or  through  the  space  of  several  miles]  on  that  day;" 
"He  lay  an  hour  [that  is,  during  an  hour]  in  great  torture."  In  tlie 
phrases,  "To  dream  a  dream,"  "To  live  a  virtuous  life,"  "To  run  h 
race,"  "  To  walk  the  horse,"  "  To  dance  the  child,"  the  verbs  certainly 
assume  a  transitive  form,  and  may  not,  in  these  cases,  be  improperly  de- 
nominated transitive  verbs. 

How  is  the  nominative  case  usually  known  in  English  ?  How  the  objec- 
tive? Do  neuter  verbs  govern  nouns  and  pronouns?  In  the  phrase,  "  He 
resided  many  years  in  that  street,"  how  do  you  parse  years  ?  When  verbs 
naturally  neuter  assume  a  transitive  form,  what  may  they  then  be  called  2 
**They  who  opulence  has  made  "She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous, 
proud,    and    who    luxury    has  reprove  sharply." 

corrupted,    cannot    relish     the     "  Who  did  they  send  to  him  on  so 
simple  pleasures  of  nature."  important  an  errand  ?" 

**You    have    reason    to  dread   his     "That  is  the  friend  (4.)  who  you 
wrath,  which  one  day  (I.)  will  must  receive  cordially,  and  who 

destroy  ye  both."  you  cannot  esteem  too  highly." 

"  Who  have  I  reason  to  love  so  (2.)     "  He  invited  my  brother  and  I  to 
much  (2.)  as  this  friend  (3.)  of  see    and    examine   (3.)  his    li- 

my youth  ?"  brary." 

"  Ye,    who    were     dead,    hath    he     "  He  who   committed   the   offence, 
quickened."  you  should  correct,  not  I,  who 

^  Who  did  they  entertain  so   free-  am  innocent." 

lyt"  "We    should    fear    and    obey    the 

"  The  man  who  he  raised  from  ob-  Author  of  our  being,  even  He 

scurity,  is  dead."  who  has   power   to   reward   or 

"  Ye  only  have  I  known  of  all  the  punish  us  forever." 

families  of  the  earth."  "  They  who  he  had  most  (5.)  in- 

**  He  and  they  we  know,  but  who  jured,  he  had  the  greatest  reason 

(4.)  are  you  ?"  to  love." 


(1.)  Rule  XXIL       (2.)  Adverb.       (3.)  Rule  XL       (4.)  Rule  XV.        (5.)  678. 


154  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

1.  Some  writers,  however,  use  certain  neuter  or  intransitive  verbs  as  if 
they  were  transitive,  putting  after  them  the  objective  case,  agreeably  to  the 
French  construction  of  reciprocal  verbs  ;  but  this  custom  is  so  foreio  n  to  the 
idiom  of  the  English  tongue,  that  it  ought  not  to  be  adopted  or  imitated. 
The  following  are  some  instances  of  this  practice  :  "  Repenting  him  of  his 
design."  "  The  king  soon  found  reason  to  repent  him  of  his  provoking 
such  dangerous  enemies."  "The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge 
themselves  on  the  subject."  "  The  nearer  his  successes  approached  him  to 
the  throne."  **  Go,  jiee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah."  **  I  think  it 
by  no  means  a  fit  and  decent  thing  to  vie  charities,"  &c.  **  They  have 
spent  their  whole  time  and  pains  to  agree  the  sacred  with  the  profane 
chronology." 

"  Repenting  him  of  his  design."  Will  you  repeat  the  note  which  shows 
this  sentence  to  be  incorrect  ? 

1. 
"  Though  he  now  takes  pleasure  in  before    him,    the    humbler    he 

them,  he  will  one  day  (1.)  re-  grew." 

pent  him  (2.)  of  indulgences  so     "  It  will  be  very  difficult  to  agree 
unwarrantable."  his  conduct  with  (3.)  the  prin- 

"  The  nearer  his  virtues  approach-  ciples  he  professes." 

ed   him   to  the  great  example 

2.  Active-transitive  verbs  are  sometimes  as  improperly  made  neuter  or 
intransitive  ;  as,  *'  I  must  premise  with  three  circumstances ;"  **  Those  who 
think  to  ingratiate  with  him  by  calumniating  me." 

**  I  must  premise  with  three  circumstances."  Will  you  correct  this  sen- 
tence, and  give  the  rule  for  it  ? 

2. 
"To  ingratiate  (4.)  with  some  by     "  I  shall  premise  ioi<A  two  or  threo 
traducing  others,  makes  a  base  general  observations." 

and  despicable  mind." 

3.  The  neuter  verb  (5.)  is  varied  Hke  the  active ;  but,  having,  in  some 
degree,  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits,  in  many  instances,  of  the  pas- 
sive form,  retaining  still  the  neuter  signification,  chiefly  in  such  verbs  as 
signify  some  sort  of  motion,  or  change  of  place  or  condition;  as,  "I  am 
come;"  '*  I  was  gone;"  "I  am  grown;"  "  I  was  fallen."  The  following 
examples,  however,  appear  to  be  erroneous,  in  giving  the  neuter  verbs  a 
passive  form,  instead  of  an  active  one  :  "  The  rule  of  our  holy  religion,  from 
which  we  are  infinitely  swerved.''^  **  The  whole  obligation  of  that  law  and 
covenant  was  also  ceased^  *'  Whose  number  was  now  amounted  to  three 
hundred."  **  This  mareschal,  upon  some  discontent,  was  entered  into  a 
conspiracy  against  his  master."  *'  At  the  end  of  a  compaign,  when  half 
the  men  are  deserted  or  killed."  It  should  be,  **Aave  swerved,"  '^^  had 
ceased,"  &c. 

"  I  am  come."    Why  should  not  this  be  "  I  have  come"  ? 

3. 

"If  such  maxims  and  such  prac-     "The  mighty  rivals    are    now  at 
tices    (6.)    prevail,    what     has  length  agreed." 

(7.)    become    of    decency    and     "  The  influence  of  his  corrupt  ex- 
virtue  ?"  ample    was   (8.)   then    entirely 

"I   have  come,   according    to    the  ceased." 

time     proposed ;     but    I    have     "  He   was    entered    into    the    con- 
fallen  upon  an  evil  hour."  nection  before  the  consequences 

were  considered." 

(1.)  Rule  XXII.  (2.)  "  repent  of.''  (3.)  "  to  make agree  with,"  &c. 

(4.)  "ingratiate  ourselves.''  (5.)  By  neuter  and  active,  Mr.  Murray  here  means 

what  in  this  work  are  styled  intransitive  and  transitive  verbs.  (6.)Rule  XI. 

(7.)  "ta  become."  (8.)  ''had." 


SYNTAX.  155 

Rule  XV.  When  two  or  more  nouns,  or  nouns  and  pronouns, 

signi lying  the  same  thing,  come  together,  they  are  put  by  appo- 
sition in  the  same  case. 

55°  The  examples  which  follow  may  he  corrected  hy  this  Rule  or  the  follow 
ing  Note, 

4.  The  verb  to  be,  through  all  its  variations,  has  the  same  case  after  it  as 
that  which  next  precedes  it.  "/ am  Ae  whom  they  invited."  " /<  may  be, 
(or,  it  might  have  been)  he,  but  it  cannot  be,  {or,  could  not  have  been)  /.** 
"  /Ms  impossible  to  be  they."  *'  It  seems  to  have  been  he  who  conducted 
himself  so  wisely."  **  It  appeared  to  be  she  that  transacted  the  business." 
*'  I  understood  it  to  be  him."  "  I  believe  it  to  have  been  them."  *'  We  at 
first  took  it  to  be  her  ;  but  were  afterwards  convinced  that  it  was  not  she." 
*'  He  is  not  the  person  who  it  seemed  he  was."  "  He  is  really  the  person 
who  he  appeared  to  be."  **  She  is  not  now  the  woman  whom  they  repre- 
sented Jier  to  have  been."  "  Whom  do  you  fancy  him  to  be  ?"  By  these 
examples,  it  appears  that  this  substantive  verb  has  no  government  of  case  ; 
but  serves,  in  all  its  forms,  as  a  conductor  to  the  cases ;  so  that  the  two 
cases  which,  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  are  the  ?iext  before  and 
after  it,  must  always  be  aUke.  Perhaps  this  subject  will  be  more  intelligible 
to  the  learner,  by  observing,  that  the  words  in  the  cases  preceding  and  fol- 
lowing the  verb  to  be,  may  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  Thus, 
in  the  sentence,  **  I  understood  it  to  be  him,'  the  words  it  and  him  are  in 
apposition  ;  that  is,  *'  they  refer  to  the  same  thing,  and  are  in  the  same  case." 

The  following  sentences  contain  deviations  from  the  rule,  and  exhibit  the 
pronoun  in  a  wrong  case.  "It  might  have  been  him,  but  there  is  no  proof 
of  it."  "  Though  I  was  blamed,  it  could  not  have  been  we."  "  I  saw  one 
whom  I  took  to  be  she."  "  She  is  the  person,  who  I  understood  it  to  have 
been."  "IFAo  do  you  think  me  to  be?"  "  TFAom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?" 
*'  And  whom  think  ye  that  I  am  ?" 

Passive  verbs,  which  signify  naming,  &c.,  have  the  same  case  before  and 
after  them;  as,  "  He  was  called  Caesar;"  "She  was  named  Penelope;" 
**  Homer  is  styled  the  prince  of  poets ;"  "James  was  created  a  duke;" 
*'  The  general  was  saluted  emperor ;"  "  The  professor  was  appointed  tutor 
to  the  prince." 

"I  am  him  whom  they  invited."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and 
give  the  rule  for  it  ? 

4. 

*"Well  may  you  be  afraid;  it  is  (2.)  who  conducted  the  business; 

him  indeed."  but  I  am  certain  it  was  not  him." 

"  I  would  act  the   same  part,  if  I  "  He  so  much  resembled   my  bro- 

were  hinif  (1.)  or  in  his  situa-  ther,  that,  at  first  sight,  I  took 

tion."  it  to  be  he." 

"  Search  the  Scriptures,  for  in  them  "  After  all   their   professions,  is   it 

ye  think  ye   have  eternal  life  ;  possible  to  be  them  ?" 

and  they  are  them  which  testify  "  It  could  not   have   been   her,  for 

of  me."  she    always    behaves   discreet- 

"  Be  composed  :  it  is  me  :  you  have  ly." 

no  cause  for  fear."  "  If  it  was   not   him,  who  do  you 

"  I  cannot  tell  who  has  befriended  imagine  it  to  have  been  ?" 

me,  unless  it  is  him  from  whom  "  Who  do  you  think  him  to  be  ?" 

I  have  received  many  benefits."  "  Whom  do  the  people  say  that  we 

"  I  know  not  whether  it  were  them  are  ?" 

*  When  the  verb  to  be  is  understood,  it  has  the  same  case,  before  and  after  it,  as 
when  it  is  expressed;  as,  "  He  seems  the  leader  of  the  party  ;"  '*  He  shall  continue 
steward  ;"  "  They  appointed  me  executor  ;"  "  I  supposed  him  a  man  of  learning  ;" 
—  that  is,  '•  He  seems  to  be  the  leader  of  the  party,"  &.c.  Nouns  in  apposition  are 
in  the  same  case ;  as,  "  We  named  the  man  Pompey  ;"  "They  may  term  Charles  a 
visionary,  but  they  cannot  call  him  a  deceiver ;"  "  Hortensius  died  a  martyr ;"  "  The 
gentle  Sidney  lived  the  shepherd'?  friend." 

(1.)  Rule  XV.  (2.)  *'  they  were  the  persons." 


l.'ie  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  auxiliary  let  governs  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "  Let  him  bew^are ;" 
"Let  MS  judge  candidly  ;"  "  Let  them  not  presume  ;"  "  Let  George  study 
his  lesson." 

"  Let  us  judge  candidly."    In  what  case  is  us  ?  What  is  the  rule  ? 
5. 
"Whatever  (1.)  others  do,  let  (2.)     "Let  them  and  we  unite  to  oppose 
thou  and  I  act  wisely."  this  growing  (3.)  evil." 

nxjiMH  xiz. 

Corresponding"  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XIL 

TTie  infinitive  mood  may  be  governed  by  verbs,  participles, 
adjectives,  nouns  and  pronouns. 

The  preposition  to,  though  generally  used  before  the  latter  verb,  is  some- 
times properly  omitted  ;  as,  "  I  heard  him  say  it ;"  instead  of,  "  to  say  it." 

The  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  following  them,  in  the 
infinitive  mood,  without  the  sign  to,  are,  hid,  dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear, 
feel,  and  also  lei,  not  used  as  an  auxiUary  ;  and  perhaps  a  few  others  ;  as, 
'*  I  bade  him  do  it ;"  "  Ye  dare  not  do  it ;"  "  I  saw  him  do  it ;"  '*  I  heard 
him  say  it ;"  **  Thou  lettest  him  go." 

^  Will  you  name  the  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  in  the  infini- 
tive mood  after  them,  without  the  sign  to  ? 

"  It    is   better  (4.)   live   on    a   lit-     "  I  need  not  to  solicit  him  to  do  a 
tie,   (5.)   than   outlive    a    good  kind  action." 

deal."  "I  dare  not  to  proceed  so  hastily, 

"  You  ought  not  walk  too  hastily."  lest  I  should  give  offence." 

"I  wish  him  not  wrestle  with  his     "I  have  seen  some  young  persons 
happiness."  to  conduct  themselves  very  dis- 

creetly." 

1.  In  the  following  passages,  the  word  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood, 
where  it  is  distinguished  by  Italic  characters,  is  superfluous  and  improper : 
**  I  have  observed  some  satirists  to  use,"  &c.  **  To  see  so  many  to  make 
so  Uttle  conscience  of  so  great  a  sin."  *'  It  cannot  but  be  a  delightful  spec- 
tacle to  God  and  angels,  to  see  a  young  person,  besieged  by  powerful  temp- 
tations on  every  side,  to  acquit  himself  gloriously,  and  resolutely  to  hold  out 
against  the  most  violent  assaults ;  to  behold  one  in  the  prime  and  flower  of 
his  age,  that  is  courted  by  pleasures  and  honors,  by  the  devil,  and  all  the 
bewitching  vanities  of  the'  world,  to  reject  all  these,  and  to  cleave  stead- 
fastly unto  God." 

This  mood  has  also  been  improperly  used  in  the  following  places :  '*  I  am 
not  hke  other  men,  to  envy  the  talents  I  cannot  reach."  '  *  Grammarians  have 
denied,  or  at  least  doubted,  them  to  he  genuine."  **  That  all  our  doings  may 
be  ordered  by  thy  governance,  to  do  always  what  is  righteous  in  thy  sight." 

The  infinitive  is  frequently  governed  by  adjectives,  substantives,  and  par- 
ticiples ;  as,  '*  He  is  eager  to  learn  ;"  '*  She  is  worthy  to  be  loved  ;"  "  They 
have  a  desire  to  improve ;"  **  Endeavoring  to  persuade." 

The  infinitive  mood  has  much  of  the  nature  of  a  substantive,  expressing 
the  action  itself  which  the  verb  signifies,  as  the  participle  has  the  nature  of 
an  adjective.  Thus  the  infinitive  mood  does  the  office  of  a  substantive  in 
different  cases: — in  the  nominative;  as,  "  To  ^Zay  is  pleasant :" — in  the 
objective  ;  as,  **  Boys  love  to  play  ;"  "  For  to  will  is  present  with  me  ; 
but  to  perform  that  which  is  good,  I  find  not." 

The  infinitive  mood  is  often  made  absolute,  or  used  independently  on  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  supplying  the  place  of  the  conjunction  that  with  the 
potential  mood ;  as,  "To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault;"  "To  begin 
with  the  first ;"  "  To  proceed  ;"  "  To  conclude ;" — that  is,  "  That  I  may 
confess,"  &c. 

(1.)  Rule  VIIL  (2.)  Imp.  Rule  VI.         (a)  559.         (4.)  » to  live,"  Rule  XH. 

(5.)  Noun. 


SYNTAX.  157 

"  I  have  observed  some  satirists  to  use,"  &c.  What  is  incorrect  in  this 
eentence  ? 

In  the  expression,  "  He  is  eager  to  learn,"  will  you  parse  to  learn  ?  What 
is  the  rule  ?  (1.)  **  To  play  is  pleasant."  Will  you  parse  to  play,  and  give 
a  rule  for  it  ?  (1.)  **  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault."  How  is  to  con- 
fess parsed  ?    What  is  the  rule  for  it  ?  (2.) 

1. 

**  It  is  a  great  support  to  virtue,  "  To  see  (6.)  young  persons  who  are 
when  we  see  a  good  mind  to  courted  by  health  and  pleasure, 
maintain  (3.)  its  patience  and  to  resist  all  the  allurements 
tranquillity,  under  injuries  and  of  vice,  and  to  steadily  pursue 
affliction,  and  to  cordially  for-  virtue  and  knowledge,  is  cheer- 
give  its  oppressors."  ing  and  delightful  to  every  good 

•*  It  is  the  difference  of  their  con-  mind." 

duct,  which  makes   us  to  ap-  "  They  acted  with  so  much  reserve, 

prove  the  one,  and  to  reject  the  that  some  persons  doubted  them 

other."  to  be  sincere."  (7.) 

•*  We  should  not  be  like  many  per-  "  And  the  multitude  wondered,  when 

sons,  to  (4.)  depreciate  the  vir-  they  saw  the  lame  to  walk,  and 

tues  we  (5.)  do  not  possess."  the  blind  to  see."  (8.) 

RUZiIS   ZXVZ. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XITI. 

In  the  use  of  ivords  and  phrases  ivhich,  in  point  of  time, 
relate  to  each  other,  a  due  regard  to  that  relation 
should  he  observed.  Instead  of  saying,  "  The  Lord 
hath  given,  and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away,"  loe 
should  say,  "  The  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord  hath 
taken  away."  Instead  of,  "I  remember  the  family 
more  than  twenty  years,"  it  *  should  be,  "  I  have  re- 
membered the  family  more  than  twenty  years." 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  particular  rules  for  the  management  of  the  moods  and 
tenses  of  verbs  with  respect  to  one  another,  so  that  they  may  be  proper  and 
consistent.  The  best  rule  that  can  be  given,  is  this  very  general  one—"  To 
observe  what  the  sense  necessarily  requires."  It  may,  however,  be  of  use 
to  give  a  few  examples  of  irregular  construction.  * '  The  last  week  I  m- 
iended  to  have  written,^  ^  is  a  very  common  phrase;  the  infinitive  being  in 
the  past  time,  as  well  as  the  verb  which  it  follows.  But  it  is  certainly  wrong ; 
for  how  long  soever  it  now  is  since  I  thought  of  writing,  to  write  was  then 
present  to  me,  and  must  still  be  considered  as  present,  when  I  bring  back 
that  time,  and  the  thoughts  of  it.  It  ought,  therefore,  to  be,  '*  The  last  week 
I  intended  to  write.^^  The  following  sentences  are  also  erroneous:  "I 
cannot  excuse  the  remissness  of  those  whose  business  it  should  have  been, 
as  it  certainly  was  their  interest,  to  have  interposed  their  good  offices." 
*'  There  were  two  circumstances  which  made  it  necessary  for  them  to  have 
lost  no  time."  **  History  painters  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  have  in- 
vented such  a  species  of  beings."  They  ought  to  be,  to  interpose,  to  lose, 
to  invent.  *'  On  the  morrow,  because  he  would  have  known  the  certainty 
wherefore  he  was  accused  of  the  Jews,  he  loosed  him."  It  ought  to  be, 
"because  he  would  knpw,^^  or,  rather,  *^ being  willing  to  know^     "  The 


(1.) 


1.)  Rule  XII.  (2.)  Note  XII.  LVIII.  (3.)  For  to  maintain  read  maintain, 

tohor  (5.)'*  they"  (6.)  Note  XIII.  {1 .)'' their  sincerity  " 

persons  who  had  been  lame,  talking ;  and  those  who  had  been  blind,  seeing." 
14  o 


158  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

blind  man  said  unto  him,  Lord,  that  I  might  receive  my  sight."  "  If  by 
any  means  I  might  attain  unto  the  resurrection  of  the  dead."  May,  in  both 
places,  would  have  been  better.  ''From  this  biblical  knowledge,  he  ap- 
pears to  study  the  Scriptures  whh  great  attention  ;"  "  <o  have  studied,''  &-c. 
"  I  feared  that  I  should  have  lost  it,  before  I  arrived  at  the  city  ;"  "  should 
lose  ity  "  I  had  rather  walk  ;"  it  should  be,  "I  would  rather  walk."  "  It 
would  have  afforded  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  perform  it ;"  it  should  be, 
"  if  I  could  have  performed  it ;"  or,  "It  would  afford  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I 
could  perform  it." 

To  preserve  consistency  in  the  time  of  verbs,  we  must  recollect  that,  in 
the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  often  carry  with 
them  a  future  sense  ;  and  that  the  auxiliaries  should  and  would,  in  the  im- 
perfect times,  are  used  to  express  the  present  or  future,  as  well  as  the  past. 

"  I  intended  to  have  written."  Will  you  point  out  the  incorrectness  of 
this  sentence,  and  give  a  rule  for  it  ? 

"The  next  new  year's  day  I  shall  hold   on   all   the    opportunities 

he  (1.)  at  school  three  years."  which   the   imprudence,   weak- 

**  And  he  that  was  dead  (2.)  sat  up,  ness,  or   necessities   of  prince* 

and  began  to  speak."  afford  it,  to  extend  its  author 

**I   should   be  obliged   to   him,  if  ity." 

he  will  gratify  me  in  that  par-  "  Fierce   as    he  moved^  his    silver 

ticular."  shafts  resound." 

"And     the     multitude     wondered,  "They   maintained    that    scripture 

when   they   saw  the   dumb   to  conclusion,    that    all    mankind 

speak,  the  maimed  to  be  whole,  rise  from  one  head." 

the  lame  walk,  and   the   blind  "John  will  earn  his  wages   when 

seeing."   (3.)  his  service  is  completed." 

•'  I   have   compassion  on  the  mul-  "  Ye  will  not  come  unto  me  that 

titude,    because    they   continue  ye  might  have  life." 

with  me  now  three  days."  "  Be  that  as  it  will,  he  cannot  justi- 

"  In  the  treasury  belonging  to  the  fy  his  conduct." 

cathedral  in  this  city  is  pre-  "  I  have  been  at  London  a  year, 
served  (4.)  with  the  greatest  and  seen  the  king  last  sum- 
veneration,  for  upwards  of  six  mer." 

hundred  years,   a   dish   which  "After  we  visited  London,  we  re- 

they   pretend   to    be    made   of  turned,   content    and    thankful, 

emerald,"  to    our    retired     and     peaceful 

•*The   court  of  Rome   gladly  laid  habitation." 

L  It  is  proper  further  to  observe,  that  verbs  of  the  infinitive  mood  in  the 
following  form  —  to  write,  to  be  writing,  and  to  he  written  —  always  denote 
something  contemporary  with  the  lime  of  the  governing  verb,  or  subsequent 
to  it  ;  but  when  verbs  of  that  mood  are  expressed  as  follows — to  have  been 
writing,  to  have  written,  and  to  have  been  written — they  always  denote  some- 
thing antecedent  to  the  time  of  the  governing  verb.  This  remark  is  thought 
to  be  of  importance  ;  for,  if  duly  attended  to,  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  suf- 
ficient to  direct  us  in  the  relatitre  application  of  these  tenses. 

The  following  sentence  is  properly  and  analogically  expressed:  "I found 
him  better  than  I  expected  to  find  him."  '*  Expected  to  have  found  him," 
is  irreconcilable  alike  to  grammar  and  to  sense.  Indeed,  all  verbs  expressive 
of  hope,  desire,  intention,  or  command,  must  invariably  be  followed  by  the 
present,  and  not  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  Every  person  would  perceive 
an  error  in  this  expression — "  It  is  long  since  I  commanded  him  to  have  done 
it  ;"  yet  "expected  to  have  found,' ^  is  no  better.  It  is  as  clear  that  the 
finding  must  be  posterior  to  the  expectation,  as  that  the  obedience  must  be 
posterior  to  the  command. 

In  the  sentence  which  follows,  the  verb  is  with  propriety  put  in  the  perfect 
tense  of  the  infinitive  mood  :  "  It  would  have  affbrdea  me  great  pleasure,  as 

(1.)  "  shall  have  been.''  (2.)  "  had  been  dead."  (3.)  See  the  last  example  under 
the  preceding  Rule.  (4.)  "  a  dish  has  been  preserved." 


SYNTAX.  159 

often  as  I  reflected  upon  it,  to  have  been  the  messenger  of  such  intelligence." 
As  the  message,  in  this  instance,  was  antecedent  to  the  pleasure,  and  not 
contemporary  with  it,  the  verb  expressive  of  the  message  must  denote  that 
antecedence,  by  being  in  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  If  the  message  and 
the  pleasure  had  been  referred  to  as  contemporary,  the  subsequent  verb 
would,  with  equal  propriety,  have  been  put  in  the  present  of  the  mfinitive  ; 
as,  "It  would  have  afforded  me  great  pleasure,  to  be  the  messenger  of  such 
intelligence."  In  the  former  instance,  the  phrase  in  question  is  equivalent 
to  these  words — "7/"  I  Jiad  been  the  messenger  ;"  in  the  latter  instance,  to 
this  expression — "  Being  the  messenger." 

It  is  proper  to  inform  the  learner,  that,  in  order  to  express  the  past  time 
with  the  defective  verb  ought,  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  must  always  be. 
used ;  as,  "  He  ought  to  have  done  it."  When  we  use  this  verb,  this  is  the 
only  possible  way  to  distinguish  the  past  from  the  present. 

In  support  of  the  positions  advanced  under  this  rule,  we  can  produce  the 
sentiments  of  eminent  grammarians ;  amongst  whom  are  Lowth  and  Camp- 
bell. But  there  are  some  writers  on  grammar  who  strenuously  maintain, 
that  the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  ought  to  be  in  the  past  tense,  when 
the  verb  which  governs  it  is  in  the  past  time.  Though  this  cannot  be  ad- 
mitted, in  the  instances  which  are  controverted  under  this  rule,  or  in  any  in- 
stances of  a  similar  nature  ;  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  many  cases, 
in  which  the  thing  referred  to  preceded  the  governing  verb,  it  would  be  pro- 
per and  allowable.  We  may  say,  '*  From  a  conversation  I  once  had  with 
him,  he  appeared  to  have  studied  Homer  with  great  care  and  judgment."  It 
would  be  proper  also  to  say,  "  From  his  conversation,  he  appears  to  have 
studied  Homer  with  great  care  and  judgment ;"  **  That  unhappy  man  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  by  violence."  These  examples  are  not  only  consistent 
with  our  rule,  but  they  confirm  and  illustrate  it.  It  is  the  tense  of  tho 
governing  verb  only,  that  marks  what  is  called  the  absolute  time  ;  the  tense 
of  the  verb  governed  marks  solely  its  relative  time  with  respect  to  the  other. 

To  assert,  as  some  writers  do,  that  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood  have  no 
tenses,  no  relative  distinctions  of  present,. past  and  future,  is  inconsistent 
with  just  grammatical  views  of  the  subject.  That  these  verbs  associate  with 
verbs  in  all  the  tense»v  is  no  proof  of  their  having  no  peculiar  time  of  their 
own.  Whatever  period  the  governing  verb  assumes,  whether  present,  past, 
or  future,  the  governed  verb  in  the  infinhive  always  respects  that  period, 
and  its  time  is  calculated  from  it.  Thus,  the  time  of  the  infinitive  may  be 
before,  after,  or  the  same  as,  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  according  as 
the  thing  signified  by  the  infinitive  is  supposed  to  be  before,  after,  or  present 
with  the  thing  denoted  by  the  governing  verb.  It  is,  therefore,  with  great 
propriety,  that  tenses  are  assigned  to  verbs  of  the  infinitive  mood.  The 
point  of  time  from  which  they  are  computed,  is  of  no  consequence ;  sinco 
present,  past,  and  future,  are  completely  apphcable  to  them. 

We  shall  conclude  our  observations  under  this  rule,  by  remarking,  that, 
though  it  is  often  proper  to  use  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  after  the  govern- 
ing verb,  yet  there  are  particular  cases  in  which  it  would  be  better  to  give 
the  expression  a  diflTerent  form.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  I  wish  to  have 
written  to  him  sooner,"  "  I  then  wished  to  have  written  to  him  sooner," 
**  He  will  one  day  wish  to  have  written  sooner;"  it  would  be  more  per- 
spicuous and  forcible,  as  \yell  as  more  agreeable  to  the  practice  of  good 
writers,  to  say,  "  I  wish  that  I  had  written  to  him  Sooner,"  "  I  then  wish- 
ed that  I  had  written  to  him  sooner,"  "  He  will  one  day  wish  that  he  had 
written  sooner."  Should  the  justness  of  these  strictures  be  admitted,  there 
would  still  be  numerous  occasions  for  the  use  of  the  past  infinitive  ;  as  we 
may  perceive  by  a  few  examples  :  "  It  would  ever  afterwards  have  been  a 
source  of  pleasure,  to  have  found  him  wise  and  virtuous."  "To  have 
deferred  his  repentance  longer,  would  have  disqualified  him  for  repenting 
at  all."  "  They  will  then  see,  that  to  have  faithfully  performed  their  duty, 
would  have  been  their  greatest  consolation." 

"  I  expected  to  have  found  him."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give 
a  rule  for  it  ?  What  tense  of  the  infinitive  must  be  used  to  express  past  time 
with  the  defective  verb  ought  ?  Give  an  example.  Is  it  proper  ever  to  use 
the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  after  the  governing  verb  ?  Give  an  example. 


160 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


1. 


"I  purpose  to  go  to  London  in  a 
few  months,  and  afler  I  shall 
finish,  (1.)  my  business  there, 
to  proceed  (2.)  to  America." 

"These  prosecutions  of  William 
seem  to  he  the  most  iniquitous 
measures  pursued  by  the  court 
during  the  time  that  the  use  of 
parliaments  was  suspended." 

"  From  the  little  conversation  I  had 
with  him,  he  appeared  to  have 
been  a  man  of  letters." 

**  I  always  intended  to  have  reward- 
ed my  son  according  to  his 
merit." 

"  It  would,  on  reflection,  have  given 
me  great  satisfaction,  to  relieve 
him  from  that  distressed  situa- 
tion." 

"  It  required  so  much  care,  that  I 
thought  I  should  have  lost  it 
before  I  reached  home." 

"We  have  done  no  more  than  it 
was  our  duty  to  have  done." 
,  "He  would  have  assisted  one  of  his 
friends,  if  he  could  do  it  with- 
out injuring  the  other;  but  as 
that  could  not  have  been  done, 
he  avoided  all  interference." 

*^  Must  it  not  be  expected  that  he 
would  have  defended  an  au- 
thority,   which    had    been    so 


long  exercised  without  contro- 
versy ?"  (3.) 

"These  enemies  of  Christianity 
were  confounded,  whilst  they 
were  expecting  to  have  found 
an  opportunity  to  have  betrayed 
its  author." 

"  His  sea-sickness  was  so  great, 
that  I  often  feared  he  would 
have  died  before  our  arrival." 

"  If  these  persons  had  intended  to 
deceive,  they  would  have  taken 
care  to  have  avoided  what  would 
expose  them  to  the  objections 
of  their  opponents." 

"  It  was  a  pleasure  to  have  received 
his  approbation  of  my  labors, 
for  which  I  cordially  thanked 
him." 

"It  would  have  afforded  me  still 
greater  pleasure,  to  receive  hia 
approbation  at  an  earlier  period ; 
but  to  receive  (4.)  it  at  all,  re- 
flected credit  upon  me." 

"To  be  censured  by  him,  would 
soon  have  proved  an  insuper- 
able discouragement." 

"  Him  portioned  maids,  apprenticed 
orphans  blest. 

The  young  who  labor^  and  the  old 
who  rest." 

"  The  doctor,  in  his  lecture,  said,  that 
fever  always  produced  thirst" 


Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XIV. 


Active  participles  from  active  transitive  verbs  govern  the 
objective  case. 


"  Esteeming   (5.)   theirselves   wise, 

they  became  fools." 
"Suspecting  not  only  ye,  but  they 

also,  I  was  studious  to  avoid  all 

intercourse." 
"  I  could  not  avoid  considering,  (6.) 


in  some  degree,  they  as  enemies 
to  me ;  and  he  as  a  suspicious 
friend." 
"  From  having  exposed  (7.)  hisself 
too  freely,  in  different  climates, 
he  entirely  lost  his  health." 


1.  Participles  are  sometimes  governed  by  the  article  ;  for  the  present  parti-  , 
ciple,  with  the  definite  article  theheiore  it,  becomes  a  substantive,  and  must 
have  the  preposition  o/ after  it ;  as,  "  These  are  the  rules  of  grammar,  by  the 
observing  of  which,  you  may  avoid  mistakes."     It  would  not  be  proper  to 


(1.)  '' shall  have  finished^        (2.)  Rule  IX.         (3.) 
(4.)  "  to  Ao»fl,received."  Note  XIII.       (5.)  Rule  XIII. 


'  Might  it  not  have  bei^n"  &.C, 
(6.)  Rule  VIII.        v7.)  5(>1. 


SYNTAX.  161 

say,  "by  the  observing  which,"  nor,  "by  observing  of  which ;"  but  the 
phrase,  without  either  article  or  preposition,  would  be  right;  as,  "by  ob- 
serving which."  The  article  a  or  an  has  the  same  effect ;  as,  "  This  was 
a  betraying  of  the  trust  reposed  in  him." 

This  rule  arises  from  the  nature  and  idiom  of  our  language,  and  from  as 
plain  a  principle  as  any  on  which  it  is  founded  :  namely,  that  a  word  which 
has  the  article  before  it,  and  the  possessive  preposition  o/*  after  it,  must  be  a 
noun  ;  and,  if  a  noun,  it  ought  to  follow  the  construction  of  a  noun,  and  not 
to  have  the  regimen  of  a  verb.  It  is  the  participial  termination  of  this  sort 
of  words,  that  is  apt  to  deceive  us,  and  make  us  treat  them  as  if  they  were 
of  an  amphibious  species,  partly  nouns  and  partly  verbs. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of  this  rule :  "  He  was 
sent  to  prepare  the  way  by  preaching  of  repentance  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  *'  by 
the  preaching  of  repentance,"  or,  "  by  preaching  repentance."  "  By  the 
continual  mortifying  our  corrupt  affections ;"  it  should  be,  "  by  the  continual 
mortifying  o/,"  or,  "by  continually  mortifying  our  corrupt  affections." 
"  They  laid  out  themselves  towards  the  advancing  and  promoting  the  good 
of  it;"  "  towards  advancing  and  promoting  the  good."  "  It  is  an  over- 
valuing ourselves,  to  reduce  every  thing  to  the  narrow  measure  of  our 
capacities;"  "it  is  overvaluing  ourselves,"  or,  '^  an  overvaluing  p/ our- 
selves." "  Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven,"  &,c. ;  it  ought  to  be,  "  the  keep- 
ing of  one  day,"  or,  "  keeping  one  day." 

A  phrase  in  which  the  article  precedes  the  present  participle,  and  the  pos- 
sessive preposition  follows  it,  will  not,  in  every  instance,  convey  the  same 
meaning  as  would  be  conveyed  by  the  participle  without  the  article  and 
preposition.  "  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  the  hearing  of  the 
philosopher,"  is  capable  of  a  different  sense  from,  "He  expressed  the 
pleasure  he  had  in  hearing  the  philosopher."  When,  therefore,  we  wish, 
for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  variety,  to  substitute  one  of  these  phraseologies 
for  the  other,  we  should  previously  consider  whether  they  are  perfectly 
similar  in  the  sentiments  they  convey. 

"By  the  observing  of  which."  Will  you  parse  observing  ?  Rule  for  it  ? 
What  words  in  this  sentence  may  be  omitted  with  propriety  ?  Would  it  be 
proper  to  omit  one  of  them  only  ? 

1. 

•*By   observing  of  truth,  you   will  to  be  the  most  advantageously 

command    esteem,   as   well    as  situated  for  gaining  of  wisdom, 

secure  peace."  Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too 

"He  prepared  them  for  this  event,  much  upon  the  supplying  our 
by  the  sending  to  them  proper  wants  ;  and  riches  upon  the  en- 
information."  joyi"?  our  superfluities." 

"  A   person   may  be  great   or  rich  "  Pliny,  speaking  of  Cato  the  Cen- 

by  chance ;  but  cannot  be  wise  sor's  disapproving  the  Grecian 

,        or  good  without  the  taking  pains  orators,  expressed  himself  thus." 

for  it."  "  Propriety  of  pronunciation  is  the 

"  Nothing    could    have    made    her  giving  to  every  word  that  sound, 

so   unhappy,   as   the   marrying  which   the   most    polite    usage 

a    man    who     possessed     such  of   the    language    appropriates 

principles."  to  it." 

*'  The  changing  times  and  seasons,  "  The  not  attending  (1.)  to  this  rule, 

the    removing    and   setting  up  is  the  cause  (2.)  of  a  very  com- 

kings,    belong     to    Providence  mon  error." 

alone.*  "  This  was  in  fact  a  converting  the 

"  The  middle  station  of  life  seems  deposite  to  his  own  use. 

2.  The  same  observations  which  have  been  made  respecting  the  effect  of 
the  article  and  participle,  appear  to  be  applicable  to  the  pronoun  and  partici- 
ple, when  they  are  similarly  associated ;  as,  "  Much  depends  on  their  ebferv- 


(1.)  Rule  VI.  (2.)  Rule  XV. 


162  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ing  of  the  rule,  and  error  will  be  the  consequence  oi  their  neglecting  ofh ;" 
instead  of  "  their  observing  the  rule,  and  their  neglecting  it."  We  shall  per- 
ceive this  more  clearly,  if  we  substitute  a  noun  for  the  pronoun  ;  as,  "  Much 
depends  upon  Tyro's  observing  of  the  rule,"  &,c.  But,  as  this  construction 
sounds  rather  harshly,  it  would,  in  general,  be  better  to  express  the  senti- 
ment in  the  following,  or  some  other  form  :  "  Much  depends  on  the  rule's 
being  observed  ;  and  error  will  be  the  consequence  on  its  being  neglected ;" 
or,  "  on  observing  the  rule  ;"  and,  "  of  neglecting  it."  This  remark  may 
be  applied  to  several  other  modes  of  expression  to  be  found  in  this  work ; 
which,  though  they  are  contended  for  as  strictly  correct,  are  not  always  the 
most  ehgible,  on  account  of  their  unpleasant  sound. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  expressions  like  the  following :  **  Informing  of 
his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact;"  "  From  calling  0/ names,  he  proceeded 
to  blows."  But  this  is  incorrect  language  ;  for  prepositions  do  not,  hke  arti- 
cles and  pronouns,  convert  the  participle  itself  into  the  nature  of  a  substan- 
tive ;  as  we  have  shown  above  in  the  phrase,  "  by  observing  which."  And 
yet  the  participle,  with  hs  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a  substantive  phrase 
in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  or  verb,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood ;  as,  '^'■^Y  promising  much  J  and  performing  but  little,  we  become 
despicable  ;"   **  He  studied  to  avoid  expressing  himself  too  severely."" 

**  Much  depends  on  their  observing  of  the  rule."  Would  this  sentence 
be  correct  if  the  preposition  of  were  omitted  ?  Will  you  repeat  the  note  ? 

2. 
"  There  will  be  no  danger  of  their  the  directions,  that  we  lost  our 

(1.)  spoiling  their  faces,  or  of  way." 

their  gaining  converts."  "  In  tracing  of  his  history,  we  dis- 

"For  his   avoiding   that  precipice,  cover  little  that  is  worthy  of 

he  is  indebted  to  his  friend's  imitation." 

care."  "  By  reading  of  books  written  by 

**  It  was  from  our  misunderstanding  the  best  authors,  his  mind  be- 

ca^me  highly  improved." 

3.  As  the  perfect  participle  and  the  imperfect  tense  are  sometimes  different 
in  their  form,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  be  not  indiscriminately  used.  It 
is  frequently  said,  "  He  begun,"  for  **  he  began  ;"  "  He  run,"  for  "  he 
ran;"  "He  drunk,"  for  *'he  drank;"  the  participle  being  here  used  in- 
stead of  the  imperfect  tense  :  and  much  more  frequently  the  imperfect  tense 
instead  of  the  participle  ;  as,  **  I  had  wrote,"  for  "I  had  written  ;"  "I  was 
chose,"  for  **  I  was  chosen  ;"  "  I  have  eat,"  for  "  I  have  eaten."  "  His 
words  were  interwove  with  sighs ;"  '*  were  interwoven.''  "  He  would  have 
spoke;"  ^^  spoken."  **  He  hath  bore  witness  to  his  faithful  servants;" 
^' borne."  **  By  this  means  he  overrun  his  guide  ;"  ''overran."  *' The  sun 
has  rose  ;"  ''risen."  *'His  constitution  has  been  greatly  shook,  but  his 
mind  is  too  strong  to  be  shook  by  such  causes  ;"  "shaken"  in  both  places. 
"They  were  verses  wrote  on  glass;"  "written."  "Philosophers  have 
often  mistook  the  source  of  true  happiness  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  mistaken." 

The  participle  ending  in  ed  is  often  improperly  contracted  by  changing  ed 
into  t ;  as,  "  In  good  behavior  he  is  not  surpast  by  any  pupil  of  the  school ;" 
"  She  was  much  distrest ;"  they  ought  to  be,  "  surpassed,"  "  distressed." 
Is  it  correct  to  say,  "  He  begun"  ?  What  is  wrong  in  the  expression  ? 
Will  you  repeat  I^'ote  3  ?  Can  the  participle  ending  in  ed  be  contracted  to «, 
with  propriety  ? 

3. 
**  By  too  eager  pursuit,  he  run  a     "  He  was  greatly  heated,  and  drunk 
great  risk  of  being  disappoint-  with  avidity." 

ed."  (2.)  "  Though  his  conduct  was,  in  some 

"  He  had  not  long  enjoyed  repose,  respects,  exceptionable,  yet   he 

before  he  begun  to  be  weary  of  dared  not  commit  so  great  an 

having  nothing  to  do."  offence  as  that  which  was  pro- 

posed to  him." 

(1.)  Omit  **  their,"  (2.)  Prcs,  paas.  part,  used  as  a  Boun.— Rule  X. 


SYNTAX. 


1^1 


**A  second   deluge  •learning    thus 

o'errun, 
And  the  monks  finished  what  the 

Goths  begun." 
"  If  some  events   had   not  fell  out 

very    unexpectedly,     I     should 

have  been  present" 
**  He  would  have  went  with  us,  had 

he  been  invited." 
"He  returned  the  goods  which  he 

had  stole,  and  made  all  the  re- 
paration in  his  power." 
**  They  have  chose  the  part  of  holidr 

and  virtue." 
"  His  vices  have  weakened  his  mind, 

and  broke  his  health." 
**  He  had  mistook  his  true  interest, 

and   found   himself  forsook  by 

his  former  adherents." 
"  The   bread  that  has   been  eat  is 

soon  forgot." 
"  No  contentions  have  arose  amongst 

them  since  their  reconciliation." 
"  The  cloth  had  no  seam,  but  was 

wove  throughout." 
•*  The  French  language  is  spoke  in 

every  state  in  Europe. 


"His  resolution  was  too  strong 
to  be  shook  by  slight  opposi- 
tion." 

'*  He  was  not  much  restrained  aftel-- 
wards,  having  took  improper 
liberties  at  first." 

'*  He  has  not  yet  wore  off  the  rough 
manners  which  he  brought  with 
him." 

'*You  w*ho  have  forsook  your 
friends,  are  entitled  to  no  Con- 
fidence." 

"They  who  have  bore  a  part  in 
the  labor,  shall  share  the  re- 
wards." 

"When  the  rules  have  been  wan- 
tonly broke,  there  can  be  no 
plea  for  favor." 

"  He  writes  as  the  best  authors 
would  have  wrote,  had  they 
writ  on  the  same  subject." 

'*He  h*ept  up  great  riches,  but  past 
his  time  miserably." 

*  He  talkt  and  stampt  with  such 
vehemence,  that  he  was  sus- 
pected to  be  insane." 


RI7Z.I:  xxvzz. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XV. 

Adverbs,  though  they  have  no  government  of  case,  tense, 

6fC.,  require  an  appropriate  situation  in  the  sentence, . 

viz.  for  the  most  part,  before  adjectives,  after  verbs 
t,    active  or  neuter,  and  frequently  between  the  auxiliary 

and  the  verb;  as,  "He  made  a  very  sensible  dis- 
>-    course  ;  he  spoke  unaffectedly  and  forcibly,  and  was 

attentively  heard  by  the  whole  assenably/' 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  positions  of  adverbs  may  serve  to  illustrate 
the  rule.  "  He  must  not  expect  to  find  study  agreeable  always  ;"  *'  always 
agreeable."  *'  We  always  find  them  ready  when  we  want  them  ;"  "  we 
find  them  always  ready,"  &e.  "  Dissertations  on  the  prophecies  which  have 
remarkably  been  fulfilled  ;"  '*  which  have  been  remarkably.''^  "  Instead  of 
looking  contemptuously  down  on  the  crooked  in  mind  or  in  body,  we  should 
look  up  thankfully  to  God,  who  hath  made  us  better ;"  *'  Instead  of  looking 
down  contemptuously,  &c.,  we  should  thankfully  look,  up,^^  &c.  **  IT  thou 
art  blessed  naturally  with  a  ^ood  memory,  continually  exercise  it ;"  "  na- 
turally blessed,^ ^  &c.  *'  exercise  it  continually.^^ 

Sometimes  the  adverb  is  placed  with  propriety  before  the  verb,  or  at  some 
distance  after  it ;  sometimes  between  the  two  auxiliaries  ;  and  sometimes  af- 
ter them  both  ;  as  in  the  following  examples  :  ' '  Vice  always  creeps  by  de- 
grees, and  insensibly  twines  around  us  those  concealed  fetters,  by  which  we 
are  at  last  completely  bound."  **  He  encouraged  the  ITinglish  barons  to  carry 
their  opposition  farther  ;"  **  They  compelled  him  to  declare  that  he  would 
abjure  the  realm  forever ,'"  instead  of,  **  to  carry  farther  their  opposition  ;" 


164  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

and  "  to  abjure  forever  the  realm."  "  He  has  eenera]J,y  been  reckoned  an 
honest  man;"  "  The  book  may  always  be  had  at  such  a  place  ;"  in  pre- 
ference to  "  has  been  generally,"  and  "  may  be  always."  "  These  rules 
will  be  clearly  understood,  after  they  have  been  diligently  studied,"  is  pre- 
ferable to,  "These  rules  will  clearly  be  understood,  after  they  have  diligently 
been  studied." 

From  the  preceding  remarks  and  examples,  it  appears  that  no  exact  and 
determinate  rule  can  be  given  for  the  placing  of  adverbs,  on  all  occasions. 
The  general  rule  may  be  of  considerable  use  ;  but  the  easy  How  and  per- 
epicuiiy  of  the  phrase,  are  the  things  which  ought  to  be  chiefly  regarded. 

The  adverb  tfiere  is  often  used  as  an  expletive,  or  as  a  word  that  adds 
nothing  to  the  sense  ;  in  which  case  it  precedes  the  verb  and  the  nominative 
noun  ;  as,  "  There  is  a  person  at  the  door ;"  "  There  are  some  thieves  in 
the  house  ;"  which  would  be  as  well,  or  better,  expressed  by  saying,  "  A 
person  is  at  the  door;"  "  Some  thieves  are  in  the  house."  Sometimes,  it 
is  made  use  of  to  give  a  small  degree  of  emphasis  to  the  sentence ;  as, 
**  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John."  When  it  is 
applied  in  its  strict  sense,  it  principally  follows  the  verb  and  the  nominative 
case  ;  as,  *'  The  man  stands  there^ 

What  word  is  misplaced  in  the  sentence,  "He  must  not  expect  to  find 
study  agreeable  always"  ?  Will  you  correct  the  sentence,  and  give  the  Rule 
for  the  position  of  adverbs  ?  How  is  the  adverb  sometimes  placed  with  re- 
spect to  the  verb  ?    With  respect  to  the  auxiliary  ? 

**  He  was  pleasing  not  often,  (1.)  be-  "  So  well  educated  a  boy  gives  great 

cause  he  was  vain."  hopes  to  his  friends." 

"William   nobly  acted,  though   he  "Not   only  he    found    her  employ 

was  unsuccessful."  ed,    but    pleased    and    tranquil 

"  We  may  happily  live^  though  our  also." 

possessions  are  small."  "  We  always  should  prefer  our  duty 

"  From  whence  (2.)   we  may  date  to  our  pleasure." 

likewise    the     period     of    this  "  It  is  impossible  continually  to  be 

event."  at  work." 

"It   cannot  be   impertinent  or   ri-  "The  heavenly  bodies  are   in  mo- 

diculous,   therefore,   to    remon-  tion  perpetually." 

strate."  "Having  not  known,  or  having  not 

"  He  offered  an  apology,  which  not  considered,   the   measures    pro- 
being  admitted,  he  became  sub-  posed,  he  failed  of  success." 
missive."  "  My  opinion  was  given  on  rather 

"These    things    should    be    never  a   (5.)    cursory    perusal   of  the 

separated."  book." 

"  Unless  he  have  more  government  "  It  is  too  common  with  mankind, 

of  himself,   he  will   be  always  to  be   engrossed  and  overcome 

discontented."  totally,  by  present  events." 

"  Never  (3.)  sovereign  was  (4.)   so  "  When  the  Romans  were  pressed 

much  beloved  by  the  people."  with    a    foreign     enemy,     the 

"  He  was  determined  to  invite  back  women     contributed    all    their 

the  king,  and  to  call  together  rings  and  jewels  voluntarily,  to 

his  friends."  assist  the  government." 

1.  The  adverb  never  generally  precedes  the  verb;  as,  "I  never  was 
there;"  "  He  never  comes  at  a  proper  time."  When  an  auxiliary  is  used, 
it  is  placed  indifferently,  either  before  or  after  this  adverb ;  as,  "  He  was 
never  seen  (or  never  was  seen)  to  laugh  from  that  time."  Never  seems  to 
be  improperly  used  in  the  following  passages:  "Ask  me  never  so  much 
dowry  and  gift."  "If  I  make  my  hands  never  so  clean."  "  Charm  he 
never  so  wisely."     The  word  ever  would  be  more  suitable  to  the  sense. 

(1.)  ''not  often  pleasing."  (2.)  589.  (3.)  "  JVo."  (4.)  "eccr  so."  . 

(5.)  •'  a  rather:'— Rii\e  IX. 


SYNTAX.  165 

verb  never  ge 

,  ive  an  exam 

instead  of  ever. 


How  is  the  adverb  never  generally  placed  with  respect  to  the  verb  ?  Give 
an  example.    Give  an  example  where  the  word  never  is  improperly  used 


".They   could    not    persuade   him,     "  If  some  persons' opportunities  were 
though  they  were  never  so  elo-  never  so  favorable,  they  would 

quent."  be  indolent  to  improve  them." 

2.  In  imitation  of  the  French  idiom,  the  adverb  of  place  where  is  often 
used  instead  of  the  pronouns  relative  and  a  preposition.  "  They  framed  a 
protestation,  where  they  repeated  all  their  former  claims  ;"  i.  e.  ''  in  which 
they  repeated."  **  The  king  was  still  determined  to  run  forwards,  in  the 
same  course  where  he  was  already,  by  his  precipitate  career,  too  fatally  ad- 
vanced ;"  i.  e.  "  in  which  he  was."  But  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  this 
mode  of  expression. 

The  adverbs  hence,  thence,  and  whence,  imply  a  preposition  ;  for  they  sig- 
nify, "  from  this  place,"  "  from  that  place,"  "  from  what  place."  It  seems, 
therefore,  strictly  speaking,  to  be  improper  to  join  a  preposition  with  them, 
because  it  is  superfluous  ;  as,  *'  This  is  the  leviathan,  from  whence  the  wits 
of  our  age  are  said  to  borrow  their  weapons  ;"  "  An  ancient  author  prophe- 
sies from  hence."  But  the  origin  of  these  words  is  little  attended  to,  and 
the  preposiiion /rom  so  often  used  in  construction  with  them,  that  the  omis- 
sion of  it,  in  many  cases,  would  seem  stiff,  and  be  disagreeable. 

The  adverbs  here,  there,  where,  are  often  improperly  applied  to  verbs  sig- 
nifying motion,  instead  of  the  adverbs  hither,  thither,  whither;  as,  **He 
came  here  hastily;"  "They  rode  there  with  speed."  They  should  be, 
*'  He  came  hither  /"   **  They  rode  thither, ^^  <Slc. 

**  They  framed  a  protestation  where  they  repeated  all  their  former  claims."' 
Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  repeat  Note  2  ? 


**  He  drew  up  a  petition,  where  he  "  George    is    active ;    he    walked 

too  freely  represented  his  own  there   in  less   than   an  hour." 

,        merits."  (1.) 

'*  His  follies  had  reduced  him  to  a  "  Where  are  you  all  going  in  such 

situation  where  he  had  much  to  haste  ?" 

fear,  and  nothing  to  hope."  "  Whither    have    they   been    since 

.  •*  It  is  reported  that  the  prince  will  they  left  the  city  ?" 
come  here  to-morrow." 

3.  We  have  some  examples  of  adverbs  being  used  for  substantives  :  "  In 
1687,  he  erected  it  into  a  community  of  regulars,  since  when  it  has  begun 
to  increase  in  those  countries  as  a  religious  order;"  i.  e.  "since  which 
time.^^  "A  httle  while,  and  I  shall  not  see  you;"  i.  e.  "  a  short  time.^' 
*'  It  is  worth  their  while  ;"  i.  e.  "  it  deserves  their  time  and  pains."  But 
this  use  of  the  word  rather  suits  familiar  than  grave  style.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  phrase,  "  To  do  a  thing  anyhow  /"  i.  e.  "in  any  manner :" 
or,  "  somehow  /"  i.  e.  "in  some  manner."  "  Somehow,  worthy  as  these 
people  are,  they  are  under  the  influence  of  prejudice." 

Will  you  repeat  this  note,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ? 

3. 

"  Charles    left   the    seminary    too     "  Nothing  is  better  worth  the  while 
early,    since     when    he    has  (3.)  of  youn^  persons,  than  the 

made     very      little     improve-  acquisition   of  knowledge   and 

ment"  (2.)  virtue." 

(1.)  Rule  XXIT.  (2.)  "  and  from  that  time  he,"  &c. ;  or,  "  and  has  since  made" 
&.0,        (3.)  •'  tke  time  and  attention  of^"  &c 


im  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XVI. 

Tivo  negatives,  in  the  sarne  simple  sentence,  are  equivalent 
to  an  affirmative  ;  as,  "  Nor  did  they  not  perceive  him  ;^' 
i,  e.  **  They  did  perceive  him." 

It  is  better  to  express  an  affirmation  by  a  regular  affirmative,  than  by  two 
separate  negatives,  as  in  the  former  sentence  ;  but  when  one  of  the  nega- 
tives is  joined  to  another  word,  as  in  the  latter  sentence,  the  two  negatives 
form  a  pleasing  and  delicate  variety  of  expression. 

Some  writers  have  improperly  employed  two  negatives  instead  of  one ; 
as,  in  the  following  instances :  "  I  never  did  repent  of  doing  good,  nor  shall 
not  now;"  ^'■nor  shall  I  now^  "Never  no  imitator  grew  up  to  his 
author ;"  **  never  did  any,^^  &c.  **  I  cannot  by  no  means  allow  him  what 
his  argument  must  prove ;"  "I  cannot  by  awy  means,"  &c. ;  or,  ''lean 
by  no  means.^^  "  Nor  let  no  comforter  approach  me  ;"  "  nor  let  any  com- 
forter," &c.  **  Nor  is  danger  ever  apprehended  in  such  a  government,  no 
more  than  we  commonly  apprehend  danger  from  thunder  or  earthquakes;" 
it  should  be,  ''any  more.^^  "Ariosto,  Tasso,  GaUleo,  no  more  than 
Raphael,  were  not  born  in  republics;"  ''Neither  Ariosto,  Tasso,  nor 
Galileo,  any  more  than  Raphael,  was  born  in  a  republic." 

Should  we  express  an  affirmation  by  an  affirmative,  or  by  two  separate 
negatives  ?  Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  improper  use  of  two  negatives  ? 

"  Neither  riches  nor  honors,  nor  no  "  Do  not  interrupt  me  yourselves, 

such  perishing  goods,  can  satisfy  nor  let  no  one  disturb  my  retire- 

the    desires    of    an    immortal  ment." 

spirit"  "These  people  do  not  judge  wise- 

"  Be  honest,  nor  take  no  shape  nor  iy,  nor  take  no  proper  measure 

semblance  of  disguise."  to  effect  their  purpose." 

•*  We  need  not,  nor  (1.)  do  not,  con-  "  The  measure  is  so  exceptionable, 

fine   his   operations   to  narrovtr  that  we   cannot  by   no  means 

limits."  permit  it." 

"I  am  resolved  not  to  comply  with  "I  have  received  no  information  on 

the  proposal,  neither  at  present,  the   subject,  neither  from  him 

nor  at  any  other  time."  nor  from  his  friend." 

"There   cannot   be   nothing   more  "Precept  nor  discipline  is  not  so 

insignificant  than  vanity."  '     forcible  as  example." 

"  Nothing    never    affected   her    so  "  The    king    nor    the    queen   was 

much,  as   this  misponduct  of  not    all  deceived  in  the  busir 

her  child."  ness." 

RUZiIS  X. 

Gorresponding  with  Murray's  GraiQinar, 
RULE  XYII. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  ca^e. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  nominative  case  being  used  instead  of 
the  objective  :  "Who  servest  thou  under?"  "Who  do  yoi^  speak  to?",, 
"  We  are  still  much  at  a  loss  who  civil  power  belongs  to."  "  Who  dost 
thou  ask  for  ?"  "  Associate  not  with  those  who  none  can  speak  well  of." 
In  all  these  places,  it  ought  to  be,  "  whom.^' 

The  prepositions  to  and  for  are  often  understood,  chiefly  before  the  pro- 
nouns :  as,  "  Give  me  the  book  ;"  "  Get  me  some  paper ;"  that  is,  "  to  me," 

(1.)  "  and  doe.'' 


SYNTAX.  167 

•*/or  me."    "  Wo  is  me  ;"  i.  e.  "  to  me."    "  He  was  banished  England ;" 
i.  e.  ^'  from  England." 

*•  Who  do  you  speak  to?"    Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  explain 
why  it  is  wrong  ?    "  Give  me  the  book."     What  is  understood  in  this  sen- 
tence ? 
*  We  are  all  accountable  creatures,  to  ?    Who    does  he  offer  such 

each  for  hisselfr  ^  language  to  ?" 

**  They  wilUngly,  and  oUkeirselves,     "It  was  not  he  that  they  were  so 

endeavored  to  make  up  the  dif-  angry  with." 

ference."  '*  What  concord  can  subsist  between 

**  He  laid  the  suspicion  upon  some-  those  who  commit  crimes,  and 

body,  I  know  not  who  in  the  they  (2.)  who  abhor  them  ?" 

company."  "  The  person  who  I  travelled  with, 

"I  hope  it  is  not  I  who  (1.)  he  is  has  sold  the  horse  which  he  rode 

displeased  with."  on  during  our  journey." 

"  To  poor  we,  there  is  not.  much     *'  It  is  not  I  he  is  engaged  with." 

hope  remaining."  .       "  Who  did  he  receive  that  intelli- 

"  Does  that  boy  know  who  he  speaks  gence  from  ?" 

1.  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  relative  which  it  governs  ; 
as,  "  Whom  wilt  thou  give  it  to  ?"  instead  of,  *'  To  whom  wilt  thou  give 
it  ?"  "  He  is  an  author  whom  I  am  much  delighted  with ;"  "  The  world  is 
too  pohte  to  shock  authors  with  a  truth,  which  generally  their  booksellers 
are  the  first  that  inform  them  of."  This  is  an  idiom  to  which  our  language 
is  strongly  inclined ;  it  prevails  in  common  conversation,  and  suits  very  well 
with  the  familiar  style  in  writing :  but  the  placing  of  the  preposition  before 
the  relative  is  more  graceful,  as  well  as  more  perspicuous,  and  agrees  much 
better  with  the  solemn  and  elevated  style. 

Will  you  repeat  this  Note,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ? 

1. 
*' To  have  no  one  whom  we  heartily     "He  is  a  friend  whom  I  am  highly 
wish  well  to,  and  whom  we  are  indebted  to." 

warmly  concerned  for,  is  a  de- 
plorable state." 

2.  Some  writers  separate  the  preposition  from  its  noun,  in  order  to  con- 
nect different  prepositions  with  the  same  noun  ;  as,  **  To  suppose  the  zodiac 
and  planets  to  be  efficient  of,  and  antecedent  to,  themselves."  This,  whether 
in  the  familiar  or  the  solemn  style,  is  always  inelegant,  and  should  generally 
be  avoided.  In  forms  of  law,  and  the  like,  where  fulness  and  exactness  of 
expression  must  take  place  of  every  other  consideration,  it  may  be  admitted. 

Is  it  correct  to  separate  the  preposition  from  the  noun  which  it  governs  ? 
When  may  it  be  admitted  ? 

2. 
On  these  occasions,  the  pronoun  is     "  They  were  refused  entrance  into, 
governed  by  (3.>and  consequently  and    forcibly  driven  from,    the 

agrees  with,  the  preceding  word."  house." 

3.  Different  relations,  and  different  senses,  must  be  expressed  by  different 
prepositions,  though  in  conjunction  with  the  same  verb  or  adjective.  Thus 
wei  say,  "  To  converse  with  a  person,  upon  a  subject,  in  a  house,"  &c. 
We  also  say,  "  We  are  disappointed  o/a  thing,"  when  we  cannot  get  it, 
**  and  disappointed  in  it,"  when  we  have  it,  and  find  it  does  not  answer  our 
expectations.  But  two  different  prepositions  must  be  improper  in  the  same 
constructions,  and  in  the  same  sentence ;  as,  **  The  combat  between  thirty 
French  against  twenty  English." 

In  some  cases,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  to  which  of  two  prepositions  the  pre- 
ference is  to  be  given,  as  both  are  used  promiscuously,  and  custom  has  not 
decided  in  favor  of  either  of  them.  We  say,  **  Expert  at,"  and  *'  Expert  in 
a  thin^;"  "Expert  at  finding  a  remedy  for  his  mistakes;"  "Expert  in 
deception." 

(1.)  "with  uAonu**         <2.)  **  Hum,*        (3.)  «<  by  the  preceding  word,  and  coruequmtly  agnct  toith  it." 


166,  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined  to  nouns,  they  are  generally  the  same 
that  are  subjoined  to  the  verbs  from  which  the  nouns  are  derived  ;  as,  "A 
compliance  w;i7/t,"  "  to  comply  mtA;"  '*  A  disposition  to  tyranny,"  "  dis- 
posed to  tyrannize." 

Do  we  express  different  relations  and  different  sense  by  the  same,  or  a 
different  preposition  ? 

..  3. 
**We  are  often  disappointed  q/" things,  pany,  but  have  always  hitherto 

which,  before  possession,  prom-  been  disappointed  in  that  pleas- 

ised  much  enjoyment."  ure." 

*'  I  have  frequently  desired  their  com- 

4.  As  an  accurate  and  appropriate  use  of  the  preposition  is  of  great  im- 
portance, we  shall  select  a  considerable  number  of  examples  of  impropriety 
in  the  application  of  this  part  of  speech. 

1st,  With  respect  to  the  preposition  of.  "  He  is  resolved  of  going  to  the 
Persian  court ,-"  "  on  going,"  &c.  "  He  was  totally  dependent  of  the  Papal 
crown ;"  *'  on  the  Papal,"  &C.  "  To  call  of  a  person,"  and  "  to  wait  of 
him;"  ^'on  a  person,"  «Scc.  "He  was  eager  of  recommending  it  to  his 
fellow-citizens  ;"  "  in  recommending,"  &c.  0/is  sometimes  omitted,  and 
sometimes  inserted,  after  worthy  ;  as,  **  It  is  worthy  observation,"  or,  "  of 
observation."  But  it  would  have  been  better  omitted  in  the  following  sen- 
tences: "  The  emulation,  who  should  serve  their  country  best,  no  longer 
subsists  among  them,  but  o/who  should  obtain  the  most  lucrative  command." 
*'  The  rain  hath  been  falling  of  a  long  time  ;"  "  falling  a  long  time."  "  It 
is  situation  chiefly  which  decides  of  the  fortune  and  characters  of  men;" 
"decides  the  fortune,"  or,  '^ concerning  the  fortune."  "He  found  the 
greatest  difficulty  of  writing ;"  "  in  writing."  "  It  might  have  given  me  a 
greater  taste  of  its  antiqmties."  A  taste  o/a  thing  implies  actual  enjoyment 
of  it ;  but  a  taste /or  it,  implies  only  a  capacity  for  enjoyment.  "  This  had 
a  much  greater  share  of  inciting  him,  than  any  regard  after  his  father's 
commands  ;"  "  share  in  inciting,"  and  "  regard  to  his  father's,"  &c. 

2d,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  to  and  for.  "  You  have  bestowed 
your  favors  to  the  most  deserving  persons  ;"  "  upon  the  most  deserving," 
&c.  "He  accused  the  ministers  for  betraying  the  Dutch;"  "  o/ having 
betrayed."  "  His  abhorrence  to  that  superstitious  figure  ;"  "  o/'that,"  &c. 
"  A  great  change  to  the  better;"  "/orthe  better."  "  Your  prejudice  t© 
my  cause  ;"  '' against  ^  "The  English  were  very  different  people  then 
to  what  they  are  at  present ;"  ''from  what,"  &c.  "  In  compliance  to  the 
declaration ;"  "  with''  &c.  "  It  is  more  than  they  thought  for ;"  "  thought 
of.''  "  There  is  no  need  for  it ;"  "  of  it."  For  is  superfluous  in  the  phrase, 
"  More  than  he  knows /or."  "  No  discouragement  for  the  authors  to  pro- 
ceed ;"  "  io  the  authors,"  (Sec.  "  It  was  perfectly  in  compUance  to  some 
persons  ;"  "  with."  "  The  wisest  princes  need  not  think  it  any  diminution 
to  their  greatness,  or  derogation  to  their  sufficiency,  to  rely  upon  counsel ;" 
"  diminution  of"  and  "  derogation  from." 

3d,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  with  and  upon.  ."  ReconciHng  him- 
self with  the  king."  "  Those  things  which  have  the  greatest  resemblance 
with  each  other,  frequently  differ  the  most."  "  That  such  rejection  should 
be  consonant  with  our  common  nature."  "  Conformable  with,"  &.c.  "  The 
history  of  Peter  is  agreeable  whh  the  sacred  texts."  In  all  the  above  in-  ' 
stances,  it  should  be  ''to,"  instead  of  "  with."  "  It  is  a  use  that,  perhaps, 
I  should  not  have  thought  on  ;"  "  thought  of"  "  A  greater  quantity  may 
be  taken  from  the  heap,  without  making  any  sensible  alteration  upon  it;" 
"  in  it."  "  Intrusted  to  persons  on  whom  the  parliament  could  confide  ;" 
"in  whom."  "  He  was  made  much  on  at  Argos;"  "much  of."  "If 
pohcy  can  prevail  upon  force  ;"  "  over  force."  "  I  do  hkewise  dissent  with 
the  examiner ;"  "from." 

4th,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  in,  from.,  &c.  "  They  should  be  in- 
formed in  some  parts  of  his  character  ;"  "  about,"  or  "concerning."  "  Upon 
such  occasions  as  fell  into  their  cognizance  ;"  "  under."  "  That  variety  of 
factions  into  which  we  are  still  engaged  ;"  "  in  which."  "  To  restore  myself 
into  the  favor ;"  "  to  the  favor."  "  Could  he  have  profited  from  his  repeated 
experiences ;"  "  by."    From  seems  to  be  superfluous  after /orfegar ;  as,  "  He 


SYNTAX. 


169 


could  not  forbear  from  appointing  the  pope,"  &,c.  "A  strict  observance 
after  times  and  fashions  ;"  *'  o/ times."  "  The  character  which  we  may  now 
value  ourselves  by  drawing  ;"  *'  upon  drawing."  "  Nehher  of  them  shall 
make  me  swerve  out  of  the  path;"  "•from  the  path."  "  Ye  blind  guides, 
which  strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a  camel ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  which  strain 
out  a  gnat,  or,  take  a  gnat  out  of  the  liquor  by  straining  it."  The  impro- 
priety of  the  preposition  has  wholly  destroyed  the  meaning  of  the  phrase. 

The  preposition  among  generally  implies  a  number  of  things.  It  cannot 
be  properly  used  in  conjunction  with  the  word  every,  which  is  in  the  singu- 
lar number ;  as,  "  Which  is  found  among  every  species  of  liberty,"  "  The 
opinion  seems  to  gain  ground  among  every  body." 

"  He  is  resolved  of  going  to  the  Persian  court."  Will  you  correct  this 
.  sentence?  "You  have  bestowed  your  favors  to  the  most  deserving  per- 
sons."    How  should  this  sentence  be  altered  ? 

*'  Reconciling  himself  with  the  king."  What  inaccuracy  is  there  in  this 
sentence?  "  1'hey  should  be  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  character." 
Will  you  correct  this  sentence  ? 


4. 


"  She  finds  a  difficulty  of  fixing  her 

mind." 
'Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation  to 

her  understanding." 

*  There  was  no  water,  and  he  died 

for  (1.)  thirst." 

*  We  can  fully  confide  on  (2.)  none 

but  the  truly  good." 

*  I  have  no  occasion  of  his  services." 

*  Many  have  profited  from  good  ad- 

vice." 
'  Many  ridiculous    practices    have 
been  brought  in  vogue." 

*  The  error  was  occasioned  by  com- 

pUance  to  earnest  entreaty." 

*  This  is  a  principle  in  unison  to  our 

nature." 

*  We  should  entertain  no  prejudices 

to  simple  and  rustic  persons." 

*  They  are  at  present  resolved  of 

doing  their  duty." 

*  That  boy  is  known  under  the  name 

of  the  idler." 

*  Though  conformable  with  custom, 

it  is  not  warrantable." 

*  This  remark  is  founded  in  truth." 

*  His  parents  think  on  him  and  his 

improvements,  with  pleasure  and 
hope." 

*  His  excuse  was  admitted  of  by  (3.) 
,     his  master." 

*  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see  ?" 

'  There  appears  to  have  been  a  mil- 
lion men  brought  into  the  field." 

'  His  present  was  accepted  of  by  his 
friends." 

*  More  than  a  thousand  of  men  were 

destroyed." 
'It  is  my  request  that  he  will  be 
particular  in  speaking  to  the  fol- 
lowing points." 

*  The  Saxons  reduced  the  greater 


part  of  Britain  to  their  own 
power." 

*He  lives  opposite  the  royal  ex- 
change." 

'  Their  house^  situated  to  the  north- 
east side  OT  the  road." 

*  The  performance  was  approved  of 

by  all  who  understood  it." 
'  He  was  accused  with  having  acted 
unfairly.'* 

*  She  has  an  abhorrence  to  all  de- 

ceitful conduct." 

*  They  were  some  distance  (4.)  from 

home,  when  the  accident  hap- 
pened." 

*  His  deportment  was   adapted  for 

concihating  regard." 
'  My  father  writes    me  very  fre- 
quently." 

*  Their  conduct  was  agreeable  with 

their  profession." 
'  We  went  leisurely  above  stairs,  and 
came  hastily  below.     We  shall 
write  up  stairs  this  forenoon,  and 
down  stairs  in  the  afternoon." 

*  The  pohteness  of  the  world  has 

the  same  resemblance  with 
benevolence,  that  the  shadow 
has  with  its  substance." 

*  He  had  a  taste  of  such  studies,  and 

pursued  them  earnestly." 

*  When  we  have  had  a  true  taste  for 

the  pleasures  of  virtue,  we  can 
have  no  relish  for  those  of  vice." 
'  How  happy  it  is  to  know  how  we 
live  at  times  by  one's  self,  to 
leave  one's  self  in  regret,  to  find 
one's  self  again  with  pleasure  I 
The  world  is  then  less  necessary 
for  us." 

*  Civihty   makes    its    way    among 

every  kind  of  persons." 


15 


02.)  "tn." 


(3.)  "ty." 


(4.)  K.  XZII. 


170  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  preposition  to  is  made  use  of  before  nouns  of  place,  when  they 
follow  verbs  and  participles  of  motion ;  as,  "I  went  to  London ;"  "I  am 
going  to  town."  But  the  preposition  at  is  generally  used  after  the  neuter 
verb  to  he  ;  as,  *'  I  have  been  at  London  ;'.'  "  I  was  at  the  place  appointed  ;" 
**  I  shall  be  at  Paris."  We  likewise  say,  "He  touched,  arrived  at  any 
place."  The  preposition  in  is  set  before  countries,  cities,  and  large  towns ; 
as,  "  He  lives  in  France,  in  London,  or  in  Birmingham."  But  before  vil- 
lages, single  houses,  and  cities  which  are  in  distant  countries,  at  is  used ; 
as,  *'  He  lives  at  Hackney  ;"  "  He  resides  at  Montpellier." 

It  is  a  matter  of  indifference,  with  respect  to  the  pronoun  one  another, 
whether  the  preposition  of  be  placed  between  the  two  parts  of  it,  or  before 
them  both.  We  may  say,  "They  were  jealous  of  one  another;"  or, 
"  They  were  jealous  one  of  another  ;"  but  perhaps  the  former  is  better. 

Participles  are  frequently  used  as  prepositions;  as,  excepting,  respecting^ 
touching,  concerning,  according.  **  They  were  all  in  fault  except  or  except- 
ing him." 

llow  is  the  preposition  to  used  with  nouns  of  place  ?  Give  an  example. 
Are  participles  ever  used  as  prepositions  ?  Give  an  example. 

5. 
**  I  have  been  to  London,  after  hav-  and    are    going    for    Liverpool. 

ing  resided   a  year  at  France  ;  They  intend  to  reside  some  time 

and  I  now  live  at  Islington."  in  Ireland." 

*'  They  have  just  landed  in  Hull, 

RViii:  zz. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XVIII. 

Conjunctions  usually  connect  verbs  of  the  same  mood  and 
tense,  and  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  same  case, 

A  few  examples  of  inaccuracy  respecting  this  rule  may  further  display  its 
utility.  "  If  he  prefer  a  virtuous  hfe,  and  is  sincere  in  his  professions,  he 
will  succeed  ;"  *'  if  he  prefers."  "  To  deride  the  miseries  of  the  unhappy, 
is  inhuman  ;  and  wanting  compassion  towards  them,  is  unchristian  ;"  "  and 
to  want  compassion."  "  The  parliament  addressed  the  king,  and  has  been 
prorogued  the  same  day  ;"  "  and  was  prorogued."  "  His  wealth  and  him 
bid  adieu  to  each  other  ;"  *'  and  he."  "  He  entreated  us,  my  comrade  and 
I,  to  live  harmoniously ;"  "  comrade  and  me."  "  My  sister  and  her  were 
on  good  terms;"  "and  she."  "We  often  overlook  the  blessings  which 
are  in  our  possession,  and  are  searching  after  those  which  are  out  of  our 
reach  ;"  it  ought  to  be  "  and  search  after." 

"  His  wealth  and  him  bid  adieu  to  each  other."    Will  you  correct  this 
sentence,  and  give  the  rule  for  Conjunctions  ? 
"  Professing    regard,     and    to    act     "  To  be  moderate  in  our  views,  and 

(1.)  differently,  discover  a  base  proceeding  temperately  in    the 

mind."  pursuit  of  them,  is  the  best  way 

"Did  he  not  tell  me  his  fault,  and  to  ensure  success." 

entreated  me  to  forgive  him  ?"         "  Between  him  and  I  there  is  some 
"  My  brother  and  him  are  tolerable  disparity  of  years  ;  but  none  be- 

grammarians."  tween  him  and  she." 

"If  he  understand  the  subject,  and     " By  forming  themselves  on  fantas- 

attends  to  it  industriously,  he  can  tic  models,  and  ready  to  vie  with 

scarcely  fail  of  success."  one  another  in  the  reigning  fol- 

"  You  and  us  enjoy  many  privileges."  lies,  the  young  begin  with  being 

"  She  and  him  are  very  unhappily  ridiculous,  and  end  with  being 

cbnnected."  vicious  and  immoral." 

1.  Conjunctions  are,  indeed,  frequently  made  to  connect  different  moods 
and  tenses  of  verbs ;  but  in  these  instances,  the  nominative  must  generally,  if 


(I.)  *•  actiof,"  OR,  "  Toprt^at  rt§ar4t  and  to  act^^  &o. 


SYNTAX.  171 

not  always,  oe  repeated,  which  is  not  necessary,  though  it  may  be  done, 
under  the  construction  to  which  the  rule  refers.  We  may  say,  "  He  lives 
temperately,  and  he  should  live  temperately;"  "  He  may  return,  but  he 
wUl  not  conli7iue,'^'  "  She  was  proud,  though  she  is  now  humble  :"  but  it, 
is  obvious,  that,  in  such  cases,  the  nominative  ought  to  be  repeated ;  and 
that,  by  this  means,  the  latter  members  of  these  sentences  are  rendered  not 
so  strictly  dependent  on  the  preceding,  as  those  are  which  come  under  this 
rule.  When,  in  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  we  pass  from  the  affirmative  to 
the  negative  form,  or  from  the  negative  to  the  affirmative,  the  subject  or^ 
nominative  is  always  resumed  ;  as,  '*  He  is  rich,  but  he  is  not  respectable." 
There  appears  to  be,  in  general,  equal  reason  for  repeating  the  nominative, 
and  resuming^  the  subject,  when  the  course  of  the  sentence  is  diverted  by  a 
change  of  the  mood  or  tense.  The  following  sentences  may  therefore  be 
improved  :  "  Anger  glances  into  the  breast  of  a  wise  man,  but  will  rest  only 
in  the  bosom  of  fools;"  "but  rests  only;"  or,  "  but  t7  will  rest  only." 
'*  Virtue  is  praised  by  many,  and  would  be  desired  also,  if  her  worth  were 
really  known;"  "and  she  would."  "The  world  begins  to  recede,  and 
will  soon  disappear ;"  "  and  it  will." 

Do  conjunctions  ever  connect  diffijrent  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  ?  What 
case  must  generally  be  repeated  in  such  instances  ?  Give  an  example. 

1. 

**  We  have  met  with  many  disap-  great  riches,  but  do  not  command 

pointments  ;  and,  if  life  continue,  esteem." 

shall  (1.)    probably    meet    with  "  Our  seaso*  of  iniprovement  are 
many  more."  short,  and,  whether  used  or  not, 

**  Rank  may  confer  influence,  but  will  will  soon  pass  away." 

(2.)  not  necessarily  produce  vir-  "  He  might  have  been  happy,  and  is 
tue."  now  (3.)  fully  convinced  of  it." 

"He  does  not  want  courage,  but  is  "Learning-strengthens  the  mind,  and 
defective  in  sensibihty.'°  if  properly  applied,  will  improve 

"  These  people  have  indeed  acquired  our  morals  too." 

KTTZiB    XXVZII, 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XIX. 

Some  conjunctions  require  the  indicative,  some  the  sub- 
junctive,  mood  after  them.  It  is  a  general  rule,  that 
when  something  contingent  or  doubtful  is  implied,  the 
subjunctive  ought  to  be  used  ;  as,  ^'  If  I  were  to  write, 
he  would  not  regard  it ;"  "  He  will  not  be  pardoned, 
unless  he  repentJ^ 

Conjunctions  that  are  of  a  positive  and  absolute  nature 
require  the  indicative  mood,  '^  Jls  virtue  advances, 
so  vice  recedes ;"  "  He  is  healthy,  because  he  is  tem- 
perate." 

The  conjunctions  if,  though,  unless,  except,  whether,  &c.,  generally  require 
tl^e  subjunctive  mood  after  them;  as,  "//*thou  be  afflicted,  repine  not;'* 
"  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him  ;"  "He  cannot  be  clean,  unless 
he  wash  himself;"  "  No  power,  except  it  were  given  from  above  ;" 
"  Whether  liw^re  I  or  they,  so  we  preach."  But  even  these  conjunctions, 
'  when  the  sentence  does  not  imply  doubt,  admit  of  the  indicative ;  as, 
"  Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  contented." 
The  lollowing  example  may,  in  some  measure,  serve  to  illustrate  the  dis- 

(U  **v»^»tuau»  (2.^  «f«  vMW  (3.)  «<aju( now  A« %».» 


172  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

tinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  the  indicative  moods:  '*  Though  ha 
were  divinely  inspired,  and  spoke  therefore  as  the  oracles  of  God,  with 
supreme  authority  ;  though  he  were  endued  with  supernatural  powers,  and 
could,  therefore,  have  confirmed  the  truth  of  what  he  uttered,  by  miracles ; 
yet,  in  compliance  with  the  way  in  which  human  nature  and  reasonable 
creatures  are  usually  wrought  upon,  he  reasoned."  That  our  Saviour  was 
divinely  inspired,  and  endued  with  supernatural  powers,  are  positions  that 
are  here  taken  for  granted,  as  not  admitting  the  least  doubt ;  they  would 
therefore  have  been  better  expressed  in  the  indicative  mood:  "  Though  he 
tuas  divinely  inspired ;  though  he  was  endued  with  supernatural  powers." 
The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  like  improper  manner,  in  the  following 
example  :  **  Though  he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience,  by  the  things 
which  he  sufferecf."  But,  in  a  similar  passage,  the  indicative,  with  great 
propriety,  is  employed  to  the  same  purpose  ;  "  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  lor 
your  sakes  he  became  poor." 

What  conjunctions  generally  require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them  ? 
**  If  he  acquires  (1.)  riches,  they  will     *'  Though  he  were  her  friend,  he  did 
corrupt  his  mind,  and  be  useless  not  attempt  to  justify  her  con- 

to  others."  duct." 

"Though  he  urges  me  yet  more     **  Whether  he  improve  ornot,  I  can 
earnestly,   I  shall  not  comply,  not  determine." 

unless  he  advances  more  forcible     "  Though  the  fact  be  extraordinary, 
reasons."  it  certainly  did  happen." 

**I  shall  walk  in  the  fields  to-day,     "Remember  what  thou  wert,  and 

unless  it  raiws."  be  (3.)  humble." 

*' As  the  governess  were  (2.)  present,      "O  that  his  heart  was  tender,  and 
the  children  behaved  properly."  susceptible  ofthe  woes  of  others." 

*'  She  disapproved  the  measure,  be-     "  Shall  then  this  verse  to  future  age 

cause  it  were  very  improper."  pretend, 

*' Though  he  be  high,  he  hath  respect     Thou  wert  my  guide,  philosopher, 
to  the  lowly."  and  friend  ?" 

1.  Lest  and  that,  annexed  to  a  command  preceding,  necessarily  require 
the  subjunctive  mood;  as,  "Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty;" 
"  Reprove  not  a  scorner,  lest  he  hate  thee  ;"  "  Take  heed  that  thou  speah 
not  to  Jacob." 

If,  with  hut  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  requires  the  subjunctive 
mood  ;  as,  "  /fhe  do  hut  touch  the  hills,  they  shall  smoke  ;"  "  ifhe  6e  hut 
discreet,  he  will  succeed."  But  the  indicative  ought  to  be  used,  on  this 
occasion,  when  future  time  is  not  signified  ;  as,  "  If,  in  this  expression,  he 
does  hut  jest,  no  offence  should  be  taken ;"  "'If  she  is  hut  sincere,  1  am  .. 
happy."  The  same  distinction  applies  to  the  following  forms  of  expression  : 
"  If  he  do  submit,  it  will  be  from  necessity  ;"  "  Though  he  does  submit,  he 
is  not  convinced  ;"  "If  thou  do  not  reward  this  service,  he  will  be  discou- 
raged ;"  "  If  thou  dost  heartily  forgive  him,  endeavor  to  forget  the  offence." 
When  do  lest  and  that  require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them  ?  When 
does  t/ require  the  subjunctive  ?  When  the  indicative  ? 

1. 

"Despise  not  any  condition,  lest  it  abilities,  he  is  worthy  of  atten- 

happens  to  be  your  own."  tion." 

"  Let  him  that  is  sanguine  take  heed  "  If  he  be  but  in  health,  I  am  con- 

lest  he  miscarries."  tent." 

"  Take  care  that  thou  breakest  not  "  If  he  does  promise,  he  will  certain- 

atiy  ofthe  established  rules."  ly  perform." 

"  If  he  does  but  (4.)  intiniate  his  de-  "  Though  he  do  praise  her,  it  is  only 

sire,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  pro-  for  her  beauty." 

duce  obedience."  "If  thou  dost  not  forgive,  perhaps 
"  At  the  time  of  his  return,  if  he  is  thou  wilt  not  be  forgiven." 

biit  expert  in  the  business,  he  "If  thou  do  sincerely  believe  the 

will  find  employment."  truths  of  religion,  act  according- 

"If  he  do  but  speak  to  display  his  ly." 

Cl.}  4M.  (2.)  4I».  (3.)  knpera.  (4.)  654. 


•s 


SYNTAX.  173 

I 

2.  In  the  following  instances,  the  conjunction  that,  expressed  or  understood, 
seems  to  be  improperly  accompanied  with  the  subjunctive  mood :  "  So  much 
she  dreaded  his  tyranny,  that  the  fate  of  her  friend  she  dare  not  lament;" 
*•  He  reasoned  so  artfully,  that  his  friends  would  Usten,  and  think  [that]  he 
were  not  wrong." 

Will  you  repeat  this  Note,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ? 
2. 
•'  His  confused  behaviour  made  it  rea-        rebuke,  that  he  dare  not  make' any 
sonable  to  suppose  that  he  were        reply." 
uilty."  **  His  apology  was  so  plausible,  that 

'e  is  so  conscious  of  deserving  the        many  befriended  him,  and  thought 

he  were  innocent." 

3.  The  same  conjunction  governing  both  the  indicative  and  the  subjunc- 
tive moods,  in  the  same  sentence,  and  in  the  same  circumstances,  seems  to 
be  a  great  impropriety  ;  as  in  these  instances  :  "  //"  there  be  but  one  body  of 
legislators,  it  is  no  better  than  a  tyranny ;  if  there  are  only  two,  there  will 
want  a  casting  voice."  *'  7/*a  man  have  a  hundred  sheep,  and  one  of  them 
is  gone  astray,"  &c. 

May  the  same  conjunction  have  both  the  subjunctive  and  indicative  moods 
after  it  in  the  same  sentence  ?  Give  an  example  of  this  impropriety. 

3. 
*' If  one  man  pre/era  life  of  industry,        unless  he  aim  at  reputation,   or 

it  is  because  he  has  an  idea  of  com-        hopes  for  some   singular   advan- 

fort  in  wealth;  if  another  prefers        tage." 

a  hfe  of  gayety,  it  is  from  a  like     **  Though  the  design  be  laudable,  and 

idea  concerning  pleasure."  is  favourable  to  our  interest,  it  will 

"No  one  engages  in  that  business,        involve  much  anxiety  and  labour." 

4.  Almost  all  the  irregularities  in  the  construction  of  any  language,  have  . 
arisen  from  the  ellipsis  of  some  words  which  were  originally  inserted  in  the 
sentence,  and  made  it  regular ;  and  it  is  probable,  that  this  has  generally  been 
the  case  with  respect  to  the  conjunctive  form  of  words  now  in  use  ;  which 
will  appear  from  the  following  examples  :  "  We  shall  overtake  him,  though 
he  run  ;"  that  is,  "  though  he  should  run."  *'  Unless  he  act  prudently,  he 
will  not  accompHsh  his  purpose  ;"  that  is,  '*  unless  he  shall  act  prudently." 
**  If  he  succeed,  and  obtain  his  end,  he  will  not  be  the  happier  for  it ;"  that 
is,  "  If  he  should  succeed,  and  should  obtain  his  end."  These  remarks  and 
examples  are  designed  to  show  the  original  of  many  of  our  present  conjunc- 
tive forms  of  expression  ;  and  to  enable  the  student  to  examine  the  propriety 
of  using  them,  by  tracing  the  words  in  question  to  their  proper  origin  and 
ancient  connections.  But  it  is  necessary  to  be  more  particular  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  therefore  we  shall  add  a  few  observations  respecting  it. 

That  part  of  the  verb  which  grammarians  call  the  present  tense  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  has  a  future  signification.  This  is  effected  by  varying  the 
terminations  of  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  indicative  ;  as  will 
be  evident  from  the  following  examples  :  *'  If  thou  prosper,  thou  shouldst  be 
thankful."  "  Unless  he  sfwt^y  more  closely,  he  will  never  be  learned."  Some 
writers,  however,  would  express  these  sentiments  without  those  variations ; 
*•  If  thou  pros/)eres«,"  &c. ;  "  Unless  he  studies,''^  &c. ;  and,  as  there  is  great 
diversity  of  practice  in  this  point,  it  is  proper  to  offer  the  learners  a  few  re- 
marks, to  assist  them  in  distinguishing  the  right  application  of  these  different 
forms  of  expression.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  rule,  that  the  changes  of  ter- 
mination are  necessary,  when  these  two  circumstances  concur  :  1st,  When 
the  subject  is  of  a  dubious  and  contingent  nature  ;  and,  2d,  When  the  verb 
has  a  reference  to  future  time.  In  the  following  sentences,  both  these  circum- 
stances will  be  found  to  unite :  "  If  thcm  injure  another,  thou  wilt  hurt  thyself." 
**  He  has  a  hard  heart ;  and  if  he  continue  impenitent,  he  must  suffer."  **  He 
will  maintain  his  principles,  though  he  lose  his  estate."  "  Whether  he  succeed 
or  not,  his  intention  is  laudable."  "  If  he  be  not  prosperous,  he  will  not  re- 
pine." '*  If  a  man  smite  his  servant,  and  he  die,^'  6lc.  Exod.  xxi.  20.  In  all 
these  examples,  the  things  signified  by  the  verbs  are  uncertain,  and  refer  to 
future  time.  But  in  the  instances  which  follow,  future  time  is  not  referred  to : 
15* 


174  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

and  therefore  a  different  construction  takes  place :  "  If  thou  livest  virtuous- 
ly, thou  art  happy."  '*  Unless  he  means  what  he  says,  he  is  doubly  faith- 
less." "  If  he  allows  the  excellence  of  Virtue,  he  does  not  regard  her 
precepts."  "  Though  he  seems  to  be  simple  and  artless,  he  has  deceived 
us."  "  Whether  virtue  is  better  than  rank  or  weahh,  admits  not  of  any  dis- 
pute." "  If  thou  believest  with  all  thy  heart,  thou  mayest,"  &,c.  Acts  viii. 
37.  There  are  many  sentences,  introduced  by  conjunctions,  in  which  neither 
contingency  nor  futurity  is  denoted  ;  as,  "  Though  he  excels  her  in  know- 
ledge, she  far  exceeds  him  in  virtue."  "  I  have  no  doubt  of  his  principles  ; 
but  if  he  believes  the  truths  of  religion,  he  does  not  act  according  to  them." 

That  both  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity  are  necessary, 
as  tests  of  the  propriety  of  altering  the  terminations,  will  be  evident,  by 
inspecting  the  following  examples ;  which  shovy  that  there  are  instances  in 
which  neither  of  the  circumstances  alone  implies  the  other.  In  the  three 
examples  following,  contingency  is  denoted,  but  not  futurity  :  "  If  he  Ihiriks 
as  he  speaks,  he  may  safely  be  trusted."  **  If  he  is  now  disposed  to  it,  I 
will  perform  the  operation."  "He  acts  uprightly,  unless  he  deceives  me." 
In  the  following  sentences,  futurity  is  signified,  but  not  contingency.  "  As 
soon  as  the  sun  sets,  it  will  be  cooler."  "  As  the  autiimn  advances,  these 
birds  will  gradually  emigrate." 

It  appears,  from  the  tenor  of  the  examples  adduced,  that  the  rules  above 
mentioned  may  be  extended  to  assert,  that,  in  cases  wherein  contingency  and 
futurity  do  not  concur,  it  is  not  proper  to  turn  the  verb  from  its  signification  of 
present  time,  or  to  vary  its  form  or  termination.  The  verb  would  then  be  in 
the  indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunctions  might  attend  it.  If  these  rules, 
which  seem  to  form  the  true  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  the  in- 
dicative moods  in  this  tense,  were  adopted  and  established  in  practice,  we 
should  have,  on  this  point,  a  principle  of  decision  simple  and  precise,  and 
readily  applicable  to  every  case  that  might  occur.  It  will,  doubtless,  sonie- 
times  happen,  that,  on  this  occasion,  as  well  as  on  many  other  occasions,  a 
strict  adherence  to  grammatical  rules  would  render  the  language  stiff  and 
formal ;  but  when  cases  of  this  sort  occur,  it  is  better  to  give  the  expression  a 
different  turn,  than  violate  grammar  for  the  sake  of  ease,  or  even  of  elegance. 
Has  the  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood  a  future  signification? 
How  is  this  effected  ?  What  two  circumstances  should  concur  to  render 
necessary  this  change  of  termination  ? 

Should  the  termination  be  changed  when  futurity  and  contingency  do  not 
concur  ?  What  mood  or  form  will  the  verb  then  be  in  ? 

4. 
*'  Unless  he  learns  faster,  he  will  be  Persevere  until  thou  gainest  the 

no  scholar."  summit:  there,  all  is  order,  beauty 

**  Though  he  falls,  he  shall  not  be  and  pleasure." 

utterly  cast  down."  **  If  Charlotte  desire  to  gain  esteem 

"On  condition  that  he  comes,  I  will  and  love,  she  does  not  employ 

consent  to  stay."  the  proper  means." 

**  However  that  affair  terminates,  (1.)     **  Unless  the  accountant  deceive  me, 

my  conduct  will  be  unimpeach-  my  estate  is  considerably   im- 

able."  proved." 

'*  If  virtue  rewards  us  not  so  soon  as     *'  Though  self-government  produce 

we  desire,  the  payment  will  be  some  uneasiness,  it  is  light  when 

made  with  interest."  compared  with  the  pain  of  vici- 

**  Till  repentance  composes  his  mind,  ous  indulgence." 

he  will  be  a  stranger  to  peace."  "  Whether  he  think  as  he  speaks, 
*'  Whether  he  confesses  or  not,  the  time  will  discover." 

truth  will  certainly  be  discover-     '*  If  thou  censure  uncharitably,  thou 

ed."  deservest  no  favor." 

**If  thou  censurest  uncharitably,  thou     **  Though  Virtue  appear  severe,  she 

wilt  be  entitled  to  no  favor."  is  truly  amiable." 

**  Though,  at  times,  the  ascent  to  the     **  Though  success  he  very  doubtful, 

temple  of  virtue   appears  steep  it  is  proper  that  he  endeavors  to 

and  craggy,  be  not  discouraged.  succeed." 

(I.)  Or, "  may  <«nntfio<e." 


SYNTAX.  175 

5.  On  the  form  of  the  auxiliaries  in  the  compound  tenses  of  the  subjunc- 
tive mood,  it  seems  proper  to  make  a  few  observations.  Some  writers 
express  themselves  in  the  perfect  tense  as  follows:  *' If  thou  Aave  deter- 
mined, we  must  submit:"  "  Unless  he  have  consented,  the  writing  will  be 
void:"  but  we  believe  that  few  authors  of  critical  sagacity  write  in  this 
manner.  The  proper  form  seems  to  be,  "  If  thou  hast  determined,"  **  Un- 
less he  has  consented,"  &c.,  conformably  to  what  we  generally  meet  with 
in  the  Bible :  "  I  have  surnamed  thee,  though  thou  hast  not  known  me." 
Isaiah  xlv.  4,  5.  **  What  is  the  hope  of  the  hypocrite,  though  he  hath 
gained,"  &.c.  Job  xxvii.  8.     See,  also,  Acts  xxviii.  4. 

"  If  thou  have  determined,  we  must  submit."  How  should  this  sen- 
tence be  altered  ? 

5. 
**  If  thou  have  promised,  be  faithful  to  submission,  he  is  too  generous 

to  thy  engagement."  to  exact  it." 

"  Though  he  have  proved  his  right     "  Unless  he  have  improved,  he  is 

unfit  for  the  office." 

6.  In  the  pluperfect  and  future  tenses,  we  sometimes  meet  with  such  ex- 

Eressions  as  these;  '*If  thou  had  applied  thyself  diligently,  thou  wouldst 
ave  reaped  the  advantage;"  "  Unless  thou  shall  speak  the  whole  truth, 
we  cannot  determine  ;"  "If  thou  will  undertake  the  business,  there  is 
little  doubt  of  success."  This  mode  of  expressing  the  auxiUaries  does  not 
appear  to  be  warranted  by  the  general  practice  of  correct  writers.  They 
should  be,  hadst,  shalt  and  wilt :  and  we  find  them  used  in  this  form,  in 
the  Sacred  Scriptures:  "  If  thou  hadst  known,"  &.c.  Luke  xix.  47.  *'  If 
thou  hadst  been  here,"  &c.  John  xi.  21.  "  If  thou  wilt,  thou  canst  make 
me  clean."     Matt.  viii.  2.     See,  also,  2  Sam.  ii.  27;  Matt.  xvii.  4. 

"  If  thou  wilt  undertake  the  business,  there  is  little  doubt  of  success."  Is 
this  mode  of  expression  warranted  by  good  authority  ?  How  should  it  be 
altered  ? 

6. 
**  If  thou  had  succeeded,   perhaps  of  the  measure,  we  shall  not  de- 

thou  wouldst  not  be  the  happier  sire  thy  support." 

for  it."  **Though  thou  will  not  acknowledge, 

'*  Unless  thou  shall  see  the  propriety  thou  canst  not  deny  the  fact.' 

7.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  tense  in  the  subjunctive 
mood,  is  also  very  frequently  varied  in  its  termination;  as,  "If  thou  loved 
him  truly,  thou  wouldst  obey  him;"  "Though  thou  did  conform,  thou 
hast  gained  nothing  by  it."  This  variation,  however,  appears  to  be  impro- 
per. Our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  we  again  refer  to  as  a 
good  grammatical  authority  in  points  of  this  nature,  decides  against  it :  "  If 
thou  knewest  the  gift,"  &,c.  John  iv.  10.  "  If  thou  didst  receive  it,  why 
dost  thou  glory  ?"  &,c.  1  Cor.  iv.  7.  See,  also,  Dan.  v.  22.  But  it  is  pro- 
per to  remark,  that  the  form  of  the  verb  to  be,  when  used  subjunctively  in 
the  imperfect  tense,  is  indeed  very  considerably  and  properly  varied  from 
that  which  it  has  in  the  imperfect  of  the  indicative  mood ;  as  the  learner 
will  perceive  by  turning  to  the  conjugation  of  that  verb. 

Is  the  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  ever  varied  in  its  termi- 
nation in  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  Will  you  give  an  example  ?  Is  this  varia- 
tion proper  ? 

7. 
**  If  thou  gave  Uberally,  thou  wilt     "  Was  he  ever  so  great  and  opu- 

receive  a  liberal  reward."  lent,  this  conduct  would  debase 

"Though  thou  did  injure  him,  he  him." 

harbors  no  resentment."  "  Was  I  to  enumerate  all  her  virtues, 

"  It  would  be  well,  if  the  report  was  it  would  look  like  flattery." 

only  the  misrepresentation  of  her     "Though  I  was  perfect,  yet  would 

enemies."  I  not  presume." 

8.  It  may  not  be  superfluous  also  to  observe,  that  the  auxiliaries  of  the  po- 
tential mood,  when  applied  to  the  subjunctive,  do  not  change  the  termination 
of  the  second  person  singular.  We  properly  say,  "  If  thou  mayst  or  canst  go;" 
"  Though  thoM  mightst  live  ;"  "  Unless  thou  coiUdst  read ;"  "  If  thou  wouldst 


176  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

learn;" — and  not,  "  If  thou  mayor  can  go,"  &:.c.  It  is  sufficient,  on  this  point, 
to  adduce  the  authorities  of  Johnson  and  Lowth  : — "  If  thou  shouldst  go  ;" 
Johnson.  "  If  thou  mayst,  mightst,  or  couldst  love  ;"  Loxvlh.  Some  authors 
think  that,  when  that  expresses  the  motive  or  end,  the  termination  of  these 
auxiliaries  should  be  varied  ;  as,  **  I  advise  thee,  that  thou  may  bev^^are  ;" 
"  He  checked  thee,  that  thou  .sAomZJ  not  presume  ;"  but  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  ground  for  this  exception.  If  the  expression  of  "  condition,  doubt, 
contingency,"  &,c.  does  not  warrant  a  change  in  the  form  of  these  au.xiliaries, 
why  should  they  have  it,  when  a  motive  or  end  is  expressed  ?  The  transla- 
tors of  the  Scriptures  do  not  appear  to  have  made  the  distinction  contended 
for.  "  Thou  buildest  the  wall,  that  thou  mayst  be  their  king."  Neh.  vi.  6. 
*'  There  is  forgiveness  with  thee,  that  thou  mayst  be  feared."  Ps.  cxxx.  4. 

From  the  preceding  observations  under  this  rule,  it  appears,  that,  with  re- 
spect to  what  is  termed  the  present  tense  of  any  verb,  when  the  circumstances 
of  contingency  and  futurity  concur,  it  is  proper  to  vary  the  terminations  of  the 
second  and  third  persons  singular  ;  that  without  the  concurrence  of  those  cir- 
cumstances, the  terminations  should  not  be  altered  ;  and  that  the  verb  and  the 
auxiliaries  of  the  three  past  tenses,  and  the  auxiliaries  of  the  first  future,  un- 
dergo no  alterations  whatever,  except  the  imperfect  of  the  verb  to  be,  which,  in 
cases  denoting  contingency,  is  varied  in  all  the  persons  of  the  singular  number. 

After  perusing  what  has  been  advanced  on  this  subject,  it  will  be  natural  for 
the  student  to  inquire.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  Some 
grammarians  think  it  extends  only  to  what  is  called  the  present  tense  of  verbs 
generally,  under  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity,  and  to  the 
imperfect  tense  of  the  verb  to  be,  when  it  denotes  contingency,  &.c. ;  because 
in  these  tenses  only,  the  form  of  the  verb  admits  of  variation  ;  and  they  sup- 
pose that  it  is  variation  merely  which  constitutes  the  distinction  of  moods. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  other  grammarians,  (in  which  opinion  we  concur,)  that, 
besides  the  two  cases  just  mentioned,  all  verbs  in  the  three  past  and  the  two 
future  tenses  are  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  when  they  denote  contingency 
or  uncertainty,  though  they  have  not  any  change  of  termination  ;  and  that, 
when  contingency  is  not  signified,  the  verb,  through  all  these  five  tenses, 
belongs  to  the  indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunction  may  attend  it.  They 
think  that  the  definition  and  nature  of  the  subjunctive  mood  have  no  refer- 
ence to  change  of  termination,  but  that  they  refer  merely  to  the  manner  of 
the  being,  action,  or  passion  signified  by  the  verb  ;  and  that  the  subjunctive 
mood  may  as  properly  exist  without  a  variation  of  the  verb,  as  the  infinitive 
mood,  which  has  no  terminations  different  from  those  of  the  indicative.  The 
decision  of  this  point  may  not,  by  some  grammarians,  be  thought  of  much 
consequence.  But  the  rules  which  ascertain  the  propriety  of  varying  or 
not  varying  the  terminations  of  the  verb,  will  certainly  be  deemed  impor- 
tant. These  rules  may  be  well  observed,  without  a  uniformity  of  senti- 
ment respecting  the  nature  and  Hmits  of  the  subjunctive  mood.* 

Do  the  auxiliaries  of  the  potential  mood,  when  applied  to  the  subjunctive, 
change  the  termination  of  the  second  person  singular?  When  is  it  proper 
to  vary  the  terminations  of  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the 
present  tense  ?  Do  the  verb  and  auxiliaries  of  the  past  tenses,  and  the 
auxiliaries  of  the  first  future,  undergo  any  alteration  ?  What  exception  ? 
What  is  the  opinion  of  some  grammarians  in  regard  to  the  extent  of  the 
subjunctive  mood  ?  What  is  the  opinion  of  other  grammarians  ?  In  which 
of  these  opinions  does  the  author  concur  ? 

8. 

"  If  thou  may  share  in  his  labors,  be     "  Unless  thou  can  fairly  support  the 

thankful,  and  do  it  cheerfully."  cause,  give  it  up  honorably." 


»  We  have  stated,  for  the  student's  information,  the  difFerent  opinions  of  g7ammarians,  respecting  the  English 
Bubjunctive  mood ;  First,  that  which  supposes  there  is  no  such  mood  in  our  language ;  Secondly,  that  which  ex- 
tends it  no  farther  than  the  variations  of  the  verb  extend  ;  Thirdly,  that  which  we  hive  adopted,  and  explained 
at  large,  and  which,  in  general,  corresponds  with  the  views  of  ihe  most  approved  writers  on  English  grammar. 
We  may  add  a  Fourth  npinion.  which  appears  to  possess,  at  leait,  much  plausibility.  This  opinion  admits  tlie 
arraneemeiit  we  have  given,  with  one  variation,  namely,  that  of  assigning  to  Ihe  first  tense  of  the  subjunctive, 
two  forms —  Ist,  that  which  simply  denotes  contingency  ;  as,  "  Jf  lie  desires  it,  I  will  perform  the  operation  ;" 
that  is,  if  he  now  desires  it;  2dly,  that  which  denotes  both  contins^ency  aid  futurity  ;  as,  "  If  he  rfwtVe  it,  I  will 
perform  the  operation  j"  that  is,  "  If  he  should  hereafter  desire  it."  This  last  theory  of  the  subjunc'ive  mood 
claims  the  merit  of  rendering  the  whole  system  of  Ihe  moods  ci">n8istent  and  regular ;  of  being  more  conformable 
than  any  other  to  the  definition  of  the  subjunctive,  and  of  not  referring  to  the  indicative  m<»d  forms  of  cxpvai- 
tion,  which  ill  accord  with  its  simplicity  and  nature.    Perhajs  this  theory  'vill  bw-ar  a  strict  ex3..*iJaation. 


SYNTAX.  177 

"  Though  thou  might  have  foreseen  **  Unless  thou  should  make  a  timely  . 

the  danger,  thou  couldst  not  have  retreat,  the  danger  will  be  uau- 

avoided  it."  '  voidable." 

"If  thou  could  convince  him,   he  "  I  have  labored  and  wearied  myself 

would  not  act  accordingly."  that^thou  may  be  at  ease." 

**  If  thou  would  improve  m  know-  **  He  enlarged  on  those  dangers,  that 
ledge,  be  diligent."  thou  should  avoid  them. 

9.  Some  conjunctions  have  correspondent  conjunctions  belonging  to  them, 
either  expressed  or  understood  ;  as, 

1st.  Though— yet,'  nevertheless ;  as,  "  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakea  he 
became  poor ;"  "  Though  powerful,  he  was  meek." 

2d.    Whether— or ;  as,  "  Whether  he  will  go  or  not,  I  cannot  tell." 

,3d.    Either— or ;  as,  "  I  will  either  send  it,  or  bring  it  myself" 

4th.  J^either — nor ;  as,  "  J^eithcr  he  nor  I  am  able  to  compass  it." 

5th.  As—as;  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality  ;  as, "  She  is  as  amiable  as  her 
sister ;  and  as  much  respected." 

6th.  As— so;  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality ;  as,  "  As  the  stars,  so  shall  thy 
seed  be." 

7th.  As— so;  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality ;  as,  ''As  the  one  dieth,  so  dieth 
the  other;"  "  As  he  reads,  they  read." 

8th.  So— as;  with  a  verb  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality;  as,  "To  see  thy 
glory,  so  as  I  have  seen  thee  in  the  sanctuary." 

9Lh.  So~as ;  with  a  negative  and  an  adjective  expressing  a  comparison  of  quanti- 
ty ;  as,  "  Pompey  was  not  so  great  a  general  a3  Caesar,  nor  so  great  a  man." 

10th.  So — that;  expressing  a  consequence ;  as,  "  He  was  so  fatigued,  that  he  could 
scarcely  move." 

The  conjunctions  or  and  nor  may  often  be  used,  with  nearly  equal  pro- 
priety. **  I'he  king,  whose  character  was  not  sufficiently  vigorous  nor  deci- 
sive, assented  to  the  meaaure."  In  this  sentence,  or  would,  perhaps,  have 
been  I  eter  ;  but,  in  general,  wor  seems  to  repeat  the  negation  in  the  former 
part  of  the  sentence,  and,  therefore,  gives  more  emphasis  to  the  expression. 

Are  there  any  conjunctions  which  have  correspondent  conjunctions  belong- 
ing to  them  ?    Give  examples. 

9. 

"  Neither  the  cold  or  the  fervid,  but  **  The  dog  in  the  manger  would  not 

characters  uniformly  warm,  are  eat  the  hay  himself,  nor  suffer 

formed  for  friendship."  the  ox  to  eat  it." 

"  They  are  both  praiseworthy,  and  *'  As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  the 

one  is  equally  (1.)  deserving  as  book  is  well  written." 

the  other."  "We  should  faithfully  perform  the 

"He  is  not  as  diligent  and  learned  trust  committed  to  lis,  oringenu- 

as  his  brother."  ously  rehnquish  the  charge." 

" I  will  present  it  to  him  myself,  or  "He  is  not  as  eminent,  and  as  much 

direct  it  to  be  given  to  him."  esteemed,  as  he  thinks  himself 

"  Neither  despise  or  oppose   what  to  be." 

thou  dost  not  understand."  "  The  work  is  a  dull  performance, 

"The  house  is  not  as  commodious  and  is  neither  capable  of  pleasing 

as  we  expected  it  would  be."  (3.)  the  understanding,  or  the  im- 

**  I  must,  however,  be  so  candid  to  agination. 

own  I  have  been  mistaken."  "  There  is  no  condition  so  secure,  as 

"  There  was  something  so  amiable,  cannot  admit  of  change." 

and  yet  so  piercing  m  his  look,  as  "  This  is  an  event  which  nobody  pre- 

(2.)  affected  me  at  once  with  love  sumes  upon,  or  is  so  sanguine  to 

and  terror."      ^  hope  for." 

"  I  gained  a  son ;  "  We  are  generally  pleased  with  any 

And  such  a  son  as  all  men  hailed  me  httle  accomplishments  of  body  or 

happy."  mind." 

10.  Conjunctions  are  often  improperly  used,  both  singly  and  in  pairs.  The 
following  are  examples  of  this  impropriety  :  "  The  relations  are  so  uncertain, 
as  that  they  require  a  great  deal  of  examination  ;"  It  should  be,  "  that  they 
require,"  &.c.     "  There  was  no  man  so  sanguine,  who  did  not  apprehend 


12 


( 1.)  For  "  •qruoMy,"  read  •'  or."  <2.)  « that  it.**  (8. )  "  naither  thea," 


178  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

some  ill  consequences ;  it  ought  to  be,  "so  sanguine  as  not  to  apprehend," 
&.C. ;  or,  *'  no  man,  how  sanguine  soever,  who  did  not,"  &c.  '*  To  trust  in 
him  is  no  more  but  to  acknowledge  his  power."  "  This  is  no  other  but  tho 
gate  of  paradise."  In  both  of  these  instances,  but  should  be  Ihayi.  "  We 
should  sufficiently  weigh  the  objects  of  our  hope  ;  whether  they  are  such  as 
we  may  reasonably  expect  from  them  what  they  propose,"  &,c.  It  ought  to 
be,  "  that  we  may  reasonably,"  &c.  *'  The  duke  had  not  behaved  with  that 
loyalty  as  he  ought  to  have  done  ;"  **  with  which  he  ought."  '*  In  the  order 
as  they  lie  in  his  preface;"  it  should  be,  "in  order  as  they  lie;"  or,  "in 
the  order  in  which  they  lie."  **  Such  sharp  replies  that  cost  him  his  Hfe  ;" 
*'a«  cost,"  &c.  "  If  he  were  truly  that  scarecrow,  as  he  is  now  commonly 
painted  ;"  "  such  a  scarecrow,"  &c.  "  I  wish  I  could  do  that  justice  to  his 
memory,  to  oblige  the  painters,"  &-c. ;  "  do  smcA  justice  as  to  oblige,"  &c. 
Will  you  repeat  this  Note,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ?  What  is  said 
of  sentences  beginning  with  the  conjunctive  form  of  the  verb  ?  Give  an  ex- 
ample. When  has  as  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun  ?  (1.)  Give  an  example. 


There  is  a  peculiar  neatness  in  a  sentence  beginning  with  the  conjunctive  form 
of  a  verb.    "  Were  there  no  difference,  there  would  be  no  choice." 

A  double  conjunctive,  in  two  correspondent  clauses  of  a  sentence,  is  sometimes 
made  use  of;  as,  "  Had  he  done  this,  he  had  escaped  ;"  "  Had  the  limitations  on  the 
prerogative  been,  in  his  time,  quite  fixed  and  certain,  his  integrity  had  made  him 
regard  as  sacred  the  boundaries  of  the  consiitutioti."  The  sentence  in  the  common 
form  would  have  read  thus :  "  If  the  limitations  on  the  prerogative  had  seen,"  &c. 
'*  his  integrity  would  have  made  him  regard,"  <fec. 

The  particle  as,  when  it  is  connected  with  the  pronoun  such,  has  the  force  of  a 
relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "  Let  such  as  presume  to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own 
conduct ;"  which  is  equivalent  to,  "  Let  them  who  presume,"  &c.  But  when  used  by 
itself,  this  particle  is  to  he  considered  as  a  conjunction,  or  perhaps  as  an  adverb. 

Our  lan^'uage  wants  a  a  conjunction  adapted  to  a  familiar  style,  equivalent  tn  not- 
withstanding. The  words  for  all  that  seem  to  be  too  low.  "  The  word  was  in  the 
mouth  of  every  one,  but,  for  all  that,  the  subject  may  still  be  a  secret." 

/«  regard  that  is  solemn  and  antiquated ;  because  would  do  much  better  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence  :  "  It  cannot  be  otherwise,  in  regard  iliat  the  French  prosody  differs 
from  that  of  every  other  language." 

The  word  erxept  is  far  pre^rable  to  other  than.  "  It  admitted  of  no  effectual  cura 
other  than  aniputation."  Except  is  also  to  be  preferred  to  a^Z  but.  "Theywero 
happy,  all  but  the  stranger."  In  the  two  following  phrases,  tiie  conjunction  05  is 
improperly  omitted  :  "  Which  nobody  presumes,  or  is  so  sanguine  to  hope."  "  I 
must,  however,  be  so  just       to  own." 

The  conjunction  that  is  often  properly  omitted,  and  understood ;  as,  "  I  beg  you 
would  come  to  me;"  "See  thou  do  it  not;"  instead  of  "  that  you  would,"  "that 
thou  do."  But  in  the  following,  and  many  similar  phrases,  this  conjunction  were 
much  better  inserted  :  "  Yet  it  is  reason  the  memory  of  their  virtues  remain  to  poa 
terity."    It  should  be,  "  Yet  it  is  just  that  the  memory,"  &.c. 

10. 

*'Be  ready  to  succor  such  persons  "He  gained  nothing  further  by  hia 

who  (2.)  need  thy  assistance."  speech,  but  only  (6.)  to  be  com' 

"The  matter  was  no  sooner  pro-  mended  for  his  eloquence." 

posed,  but  (3.)  he  privately  with-  "He  has  httle  more  of  the  scholar 

drew  to  consider  it."  besides  the  name." 

"He  has  too  much  sense  and  pru-  "  He  has  little  of  the  scholar  <^n  the 

dence  than  to  become  a  dupe  to  name." 

such  artifices."  "  They   had    no  sooner  risen,  but 

"  It  is  not  sufficient  that  our  conduct  they  applied  themselves  to  their 

as  far  as  it  respects  others,  ap-  studies." 

pears  to  be  unexceptionable."  "  From  no  other  institution,  besides 

"  The  resolution  was  not  the  less  the  admirable  one  of  juries,  could 

fixed,  that  (4.)  the  secret  was  yet  so  great  a  benefit  be  expected." 

communicated  to  very  few."  "Those  savage  people  seemed  to 

"He  opposed  the  most  remarkable  have  no  other  element  but  war." 

corruptions  ofthe  church  of  Rome,  "Such  men  that  act  treacherously 

80  (5.)  as  'that  his  doctrines  were  ought  to  be  avoided." 

embraced  by  great  numbers." 

^1.;  636.        (2.)  •<«."       r3.)  "»Aon."       (4.)  "tAou^A."       {%.)'' and  on  thia  aecount.»        (6 


SYNTAX.  179 

"Germany  ran  (he  same  risk  as  *' No  errors  are  so  trivial,  but  they 
Italy  had  done."  (1.)  deserve  to  be  corrected." 

RiriiX!  ZXIZ. 

Corresponding  with  Murrays  Grammar, 
RULE  XX. 

When  the  qualities  of  different  things  are  compared,  the 
latter  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  governed  hy  the  conjunct 
lion  than  or  as,  but  agrees  with  the  verb,  or  is  governed 
by  the  verb  or  the  preposition,  expressed  or  understood ; 
as,  "Thou  art  wiser  than  I;"  that  is,  "than  1  am." 
"  They  loved  him  more  than  me ;"  that  is,  "  more  than 
they  loved  me."  "  The  sentiment  is  well  expressed  by 
Plato,  but  much  better  by  Solomon  than  him ;"  that  is, 
**  than  by  him." 

The  propriety  or  impropriety  of  many  phrases,  in  the  preceding  as  well 
as  in  some  other  forms,  may  be  discovered,  by  supplying  the  words  that  are 
not  expressed  ;  which  will  be  evident  from  the  following  instances  of  errone- 
ous construction:  "He  can  read  better  than  me."  "He  is  as  good  as 
her."  "  Whether  I  be  present  or  no."  "  Who  did  this  ?  Me."  By  sup- 
plying the  words  understood,  in  each  of  these  phrases,  their  impropriety 
and  governing  rule  will  appear  ;  as,  "  better  than  I  can  read  ;"  "as  good 
as  she  is;"  "  present  or  not  present ;"  "  I  did  it." 

"  Thou  art  wiser  than  I."     Will  you  parse  /,  and  repeat  the  rule  for  it? 
**In  some  respects,  we  have  had  as     "They  know  how  to  write  as  well 
many  advantages  as  them  ;  but  as  him  ;  but  he  is  a  much  better 

in  the  article  of  a  good  library,  grammarian  than  them." 

they  have  had  a  greater  privilege     "Though  she  is  not  so  learned  as 
than  us."  him,  she  is  as  much  beloved  and 

*'  The  undertaking  was  much  better  respected." 

executed  by  his  brother  than  he."     "  These  people,  though  they  possess 
"  They  are  much  greater  gainers  than  more  shining  qualities,  are  not  so 

me  by  this  unexpected  event."  proud  as  him,  nor  so  vain  as  her." 

1.  By  not  attending  to  this  rule,  many  errors  have  been  committed;  a 
number  of  which  is  subjoined,  as  a  further  caution  and  direction  to  tho 
learner  :  "  Thou  art  a  much  greater  loser  than  me  by  his  death."  "  She 
suffers  hourly  more  than  me."  "  We  contributed  a  third  more  than  th« 
Dutch,  who  were  obliged  to  the  same  proportion  more  than  us."  "King 
Charles,  and,  more  than  him,  the  duke  and  the  popish  faction,  were  at 
liberty  to  form  new  schemes."  "  The  drift  of  all  his  sermons  was,  to  pre- 
pare the  Jews  for  the  reception  of  a  prophet  mightier  than  him,  and  whose 
shoes  he  was  not  worthy  to  bear."  "  It  was  not  the  work  of  so  eminent 
an  author  as  him  to  whom  it  was  first  imputed."  "A  stone  is  heavy,  and  j 
the  sand  weighty  ;  but  a  fool's  wrath  is  heavier  than  them  both."  "  If  the 
king  give  us  leave,  we  may  perform  the  office  as  well  as  them  that  do." 
In  tnese  passages,  it  ought  to  be,  "  /,  toe,  he,  they,^'  respectively. 

When  the  relative  who  immediately  follows  than,  it  seems  to  form  an  ex- 
ception to  the  29th  Rule  ;  for,  in  that  connection,  the  relative  must  be  in  the 
objective  case  ;  as,  "  Alfred,  than  whom  a  greater  king  never  reigned,"  &c. 
"  Beelzebub,  than  whom,  Satan  excepted,  none  higher  sat,"  ^c.  It  is  re- 
markable that,  in  such  instances^  if  the  personal  pronoun  were  used,  it  would 
be  in  the  nominative  case;  as,  "A  greater  king  never  reigned  than  Ae," 
that  is,  ''  tha?ihewas.^*  "Beelzebub,  thanhe,^*  &,c.,  that  is,  '^  than  he  sat. ^* 
The  phrase  than  whom  is,  however,  avoided  by  the  best  modern  writers. 

"She  suffers  hourly  more  than  me."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence, 
and  explain  why  it  is  wrong  ? 

lUy**  that  they  do  not.» 


180  ENGLISH   GRAMM:AR. 

1. 

"  Who  betrayed  her  companion?"  "  Whether  he  will  be  learned  or  no, 
"  Not  me."  must  depend  on  his  application.  * 

*'  Who  revealed  the  secrets  he  ought  '*  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  than  who 
to  have  concealed?"  "  Not  ^im."  (1.)  a  more   courageous  person 

**  Who  related  falsehoods  to  screen  never  lived,  appears  to  have  been 

herself,  and  to  bring  an  odium  destitute  of  the  tender  sensibiJi- 

upon  others  ?"  "  Not  me  ;  it  was  ties  of  nature." 

her"  ^  "  Salmasius  (a  more  learned  man  than 

*'  There  is  but  one  in  fault,  and  that  him  has  seldom  appeared)  was 

is  me."  not  happy  at  the  close  of  life." 

BTJXiX:  xxz. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XXI. 

To  amid  disagreeable  repetitions,  and  to  express  our  ideas 
in  a  few  words,  an  ellipsis,  or  omission  of  some  words, 
is  frequently  admitted.  Instead  of  saying,  "  He  was  a 
learned  man,  he  was  a  wise  nnan,  and  he  was  a  good 
man,"  ice  make  use  of  the  ellipsis,  and  say,  "  He  was  a 
learned,  wise  and  good  man." 

When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure  the  sentence, 
weaken  its  force,  or  be  attended  ivith  an  impropriety, 
they  must  be  expressed.  In  the  sentence,  "  We  are  apt 
to  love  who  love  us,"  the  icord  them  should  be  supplied. 
"  A  beautiful  field  and  trees,"  is  not  proper  language  ; 
it  should  be,  "  Beautiful  fields  and  trees,"  or,  "A  beauti- 
ful field  and  fine  trees." 

Almost  all  compounded  sentences  are  more  or  less  elliptical ;  some  ex- 
amples of  which  may  be  seen  under  the  different  parts  of  speech. 

"  I  gladly  shunned  who  gladly  fled  from  me."  Will  you  correct  this 
sentence,  and  repeat  the  latter  part  of  Rule  XXX,  by  which  the  correctior 
is  made  ? 

"I  gladly  shunned  (2.)  who  gladly  fell  a  victim  to  the  madness  of 

fled  from  me."  the  people,  truth,  virtue,  religion, 

"And  this  is  (3.)  it  men  mean  by  fell  with  him."  (5.) 

distributive  justice,  and  is  proper-     "The  fear  of  death,  nor  hope  of 
ly  termed  equity."  life,  could  make  him  submit  to  a 

"  His  honor,  interest,  religion,  were  dishonest  action."  (6.) 

all    embarked    in    this    under-     "An  elegant  house   and  furniture 
taking."  (4.)  were,  by  this   event,  irrecover- 

"  When  so  good  a  man  as  Socrates  ably  lost  to  the  owner."  (7.) 

1.  The  eUipsis  of  the  article  is  thus  used :  "  A  man,  woman,  and  child  ;" 
that  is,  "a  man,  a  woman,  and  a  child."  "  A  house  and  garden ;"  that  is, 
"  a  house  and  a  garden."  "The  sun  and  moon ;"  that  is,  "the  sun  and 
the  moon."  "  The  day  and  hour;"  that  is,  "  the  day  and  the  hour."  In 
all  these  instances,  the  article  being  once  expressed,  the  repetition  of  it 
becomes  unnecessary.  There  is,  however,  an  exception  to  this  observa- 
tion, when  some  peculiar  emphasis  requires  a  repetition  ;  as  in  the  following 
sentence  :  "  Not  only  the  year,  but  the  day  and  the  hour."  In  this  case, 
the  ellipsis  of  the  last  article  would  be  improper.  When  a  different  form 
of  the  article  is  requisite,  the  article  is  also  properly  repeated  ;  as,  "a  house 
and  an  orchard,"  instead  of  "  a  house  and  orchard." 

(1.)  "  loAom."— Note  XX.  (648.)  (2.)  "  him  who  "  (3.)  "  that  which.''  (A.)  Insert  «  /Ji" 

twice  more.  (5.)  "  07id"  twice.  (6.)  ••  A'ettAer— nor."  {T.) '*  much  costly y 


SYNTAX. 


m 


Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  arlicU  1   Is  it  necewary  to 
repeat  the  article  in  each  of  these  instances  ? 

1. 
*'  These  rules  are  addressed  to  none 


with  an  unimproved,  or  with  a 

corrupted,  mind." 
'  The  more  I  see  of  his  conduct,  I 

like  him  better." 
'  It  is  not  only  the  duty,  but  interest, 

of  young  persons  to  be  studious 

and.  diligent." 


but  the  intelligent  and  the  (1.)  at- 
tentive." 
"  The  gay  and  the  pleasing  are,  some- 
times, the  most  insidious,  and  the 
most  dangerous  companions." 
**  Old  age  will  prove  a  joyless  and  a 
dreary  season,  if  we  arrive  at  it 
2.  The  noun  is  frequently  omitted  in  the  following  manner  :  **  The  laws 
of  God  and  man ;"  that  is,  *'  The  laws  of  Cod  and  the  laws  of  man."     In 
some  very  emphatical  expressions,  the  elUpsis  should  not  be  used ;  as, 
"Christ,  the  power  of  God,  and  the  wisdom  of  God;"  which  is  more 
emphatical  than  "  Christ  the  power  and  wisdom  of  God." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  omission  of  the  nounl  Should  this 
ellipsis  always  be  used  ? 

2. 
*'  These  counsels  wer(3  the  dictates 


of  virtue,  and  the  dictates  (2.)  of 

true  honor." 
*'  Avarice  and  cunning  may  acquire 

an  estate,  but  avarice  and  cunning 

cannot  gain  friends."  (3.) 
*'  A  taste  for  useful  knowledge  will 

provide  for  us  a  great  and  noble 


entertainment,  when  others  leave 
us."  (4.) 

*  Without  firmness,  nothing  that  is 
great  can  be  undertaken  ;  that  is 
difficult  or  hazardous,  can  be  ac- 
complis^ied."  (5.) 

The  anxious  man  is  the  votary  of  rich- 
es; the  negligent  of  pleasure."  (6.) 


3.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adjective  is  used  in  the  following  manner :  "  A  de- 
lightful garden  and  orchard  ;"  that  is,  "A  delightful  garden  and  a  delight- 
ful orchard."  "  A  little  man  and  woman;"  that  is,  "  a  little  man  and  a 
little  woman."  In  such  elHptical  expressions  as  these,  the  adjective  ought 
to  have  exactly  the  same  signification,  and  to  be  quite  as  proper,  vvhen 
joined  to  the  latter  substantive  as  to  the  former ;  otherwise  the  ellipsis 
should  not  be  admitted. 

Sometimes  the  ellipsis  is  improperly  applied  to  nouns  of  different  num- 
bers ;  as,  "A  magnificent  house  and  gardens."  In  this  case  it  is  better  to 
use  another  adjective  ;  as,  *'  A  magnificent  house,  and  fine  gardens." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  elUpsis  of  the  adjective  ?  What  rule  is 
to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  this  elUpsis  ? 

3. 
*'His  crimes  had  brought  him  into     "  That  species  of  commerce  will  pro- 
extreme    distress    and    extreme  duce  great  gain  or  loss."  (10.) 
perplexity."  (7.)                                **  Many  days,  and  even  weeks,  pass 


away  unimproved."  (10.) 
"This  wonderful  action  struck  the 

beholders  with  exceeding  (11.) 

astonishment."  (10.) 
**  The  people  of  this  country  possess 

a  healthy  climate  and  soil."  (9.) 
'*  They  enjoy  also  a  free  constitution 

and  laws." 


**  He  has  an  affectionate  brother,  and 
an  affectionate  sister,  and  they 
live  in  great  harmony."  (8.) 
**  We  must  guard  against  too  great  se- 
verity, and  faciUty  of  manners."(9 ) 
"  We  should  often  recollect  what  the 
wisest  men  have  said  and  written 
concerning  human  happiness  and 
vanity."  (10.) 

4.  The  following  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  pronoun  :  "  I  love  and  fear  him  ;" 
that  is,"  I  love  him,  and  I  fear  him."  "  My  house  and  lands ;"  that  is,  "  My 
house,  and  my  lands."  In  these  instances,  the  ellipsis  may  take  place  with 
propriety ;  but  if  we  would  be  more  express  and  emphatical,  it  must  not  be 
used ;  as,  "  His  friends  and  his  foes ;"  "  My  sons  and  my  daughters." 

In  some  of  the  common  forms  of  speech,  the  relative  pronoun  is  usually 
omitted  ;  as,  "  This  is  the  man  they  love,"  instead  of,  "  This  is  the  man 


(10.) 


(1.)  Reject «'  tfte."  (2.)  ^'virtue  and  oftrutJ* 

'4.)  Insert  "  erUertammen<#."       (5.)  Insert "  turtAtngr." 
riv«.       (g.)  Reject  two  wondi.       (9<)  Insert  two  wordi. 

16 


(3.)  Insert  "  thty^  in  the  place  of  two  nouns. 
(60  Insert  ^'^man,  that.**  (7.)  Rrject  an  adjec- 

(10.)  lossrt  an  adjective.  (11 J  "  Bxctedingly,^ 


182  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

whom  they  k)ve ;"  "  These  are  the  goods  they  bought/*  for  *'  These  are 
the  goods  which  they  bought." 

In  complex  sentences,  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  relative  pronoun  ex- 
pressed ;  as  it  is  more  proper  to  say,  "  The  posture  in  which  I  lay,"  than 
'*  In  the  posture  I  lay  ;"  "  The  horse  on  which  I  rode,  fell  down,"  than 
•*  The  horse  I  rode,  fell  down." 

The  antecedent  and  the  relative  connect  the  parts  of  a  sentence  together ; 
and,  to  prevent  obscurity  and  confusion,  they  should  answer  to  each  other 
with  great  exactness.  "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have 
seen."  Here  the  ellipsis  is  manifestly  improper,  and  ought  to  be  supplied ;  as, 
"  We  speak  that  which  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  which  we  have  seen." 
Will  yon  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  pronoun?  Can  this  ellipsis 
be  properly  used  at  all  times  ? 

4. 
*'  His  reputation  and  his  estate  were     '*  He  is  not  only  sensible  and  learned, 

both  lost  by  gaming."  (1.)  but  is  religious  too."  (2.) 

"  This  intelligence  not  only  excited     **The  Chinese  language  contains  an 
our  hopes,  but  fears  too."    (2.)  immense  number  of  words  ;  and 

**  His  conduct  is  not  scandalous;  and  who  would  learn  them  must  pos- 

that  is  the  best  can  be  said  of  it."  sess  a  great  memory."  (2.) 

(3.)  *'  By  presumption  and  by  vanity,  we 

"This  was  the  person  whom  calumny  provoke  enmity,  and  we  incur 

had  greatly  abused,  and  sustained  contempt."  ij .) 

the  iniustice  with  singular  pa-     "  In  the  circumstances  I  was  at  that 
tience.     (2.)  time,  my  troubles  pressed  heavily 

"  He  discovered  some  qualities  in  the  upon  me."  (4.) 

youth  of  a  disagreeable  nature,     "He  had  destroyed  his  constitution, 
and  to  him  were  wholly  unac-  by  the  very  same  errors  that  so 

countable."  (2.)  '  many  have  been  destroyed." 

"  The  captain  had  several  men  died 
in  his  ship  of  the  scurvy."  (2.) 
5.  The  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  "  The  man 
was  old  and  crafty  ;"  that  is,  '*  The  man  was  old,  and  the  man  was  crafty." 
"  She  was  young,  and  beautiful,  and  good  ;"  that  is,  "  She  was  younw,  she 
was  beautiful,  and  she  was  good."  "  Thou  art  poor,  and  wretched,  and 
miserable,  and  blind,  and  naked."  If  we  would  fill  up  the  ellipsis  in  the 
last  sentence,  thou  art  ought  to  be  repeated  before  each  of  the  adjectives. 

If,  in  such  enumeration,  we  choose  to  point  out  one  property  above  the 
rest,  that  property  must  be  placed  last,  and  the  ellipsis  sup{Aied ;  as,  "  She 
is  young  and  beautiful,  and  she  is  good." 

"  1  went  to  see  and  hear  him,"  that  is,  "  I  went  to  see,  and  I  went  to  hear 

him."  In  this  instance,  there  is  not  only  an  ellipsis  of  the  governing  verb,  / 

went,  but  Ukewise  of  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  which  is  governed  by  it. 

Do,  did,  have,  had,  shall,  will,  may,  might,  and  the  rest  of  the  auxiliaries 

of  the  compound  tenses,  are  frequently  used  alone  to  spare  the  repetition  of 

^rttheverb;  as,  "He  regards  his  word,  but  thou  dost  not;"  that  is,  "dost 

j  not  regard  it."     "  We  succeeded,  but  they  did  not;"  "  did  not  succeed." 

*'  I  have  learned  my  task,  but  thou  hast  not ;"  "  hast  not  learned."  "  They 

must,  and  they  shall  be  punished  ;"  that  is,  "  they  must  be  punished." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  verb  ?  Suppose  we  wish  to 
point  out  one  property  above  the  rest?  How  are  the  auxiliaries  sometimes 
used? 

5. 
"  He  is  temperate,  he  is  disinterest-     "  Perseverance  in  laudable  pursuits 
ed,  he  is  benevolent ;  he  is  an  will  reward  all  our  toils,  and  will 

ornament  to  his  family,  and  a  produce  effects  beyond  our  calcu- 

credit  to  his  profession."  (5.)  lation."  (7.) 

"Genuine  virtue  supposes  our  benev-     "It  is  happy  for  us,  when  we  can 
olence  to  be  strengthened,  and  to  calmly  and  deliberately  look  back 

be  confirmed  by  principle."    (6.)  on  the  past,  and  can  quietly  an- 

ticipate the  future."  (7.) 


(I.)  R^eet » prononn.  (2.)  Insert* pronoun.  (9.)**that—that.^  (4.)  Fnw 

(&)  Rayect  «iz  worda,  and  \ramt  one.  (6. )  Rei>ect  two  words.  f  7. )  R^ct  one  wwrl. 


SYNTAX.  18S 

"The  sacTj^cesofTirtuewiH  not  only  rules  of  Tirtue,  not  only  would 

be  rewarded  hereafter,  but  re-  they  escape  innumerable    dan- 

compensed  even  in  this  life."  (1.)  gers,  but  command  respect  from 

,'^*  All  those  possessed  of  any  office,  the  licentious  themselves."  (2.) 

resigned   their  former  commis-     '*  Charles  was  a  man  of  learning, 
sion."  (2.)  knowledge,    and    benevolence ; 

"  If  young  persons  were  determined  and,  what  is  still  more,  a  true 

to  conduct  themselves    by  the  Christian."  (2.) 

6.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adverb  is  used  in  the  following  manner :  "  lie 
spoke  and  acted  wisely  ;"  that  is,  *'  He  spoke  wisely,  and  he  acted  wisely." 
"  Thrice  I  went  and  offered  my  service;"  that  is,  "  Thrice  I  went,  and 
thrice  I  offered  my  service." 

How  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  adverb  used  ? 
6. 
•*  The  temper  of  him  who  is  always     "  How  a  seed  grows  up  into  a  tree, 
in  the  bustle  of  the  world,  will  and  the  mind  acts  upon  the  body, 

be  often  ruffled,  and  be  often  are  mysteries  which  we  cannot 

disturbed."  (3.)  explain."  (5.) 

"We  often  commend  imprudently,     "Verily  there  is  a  reward  for  the 
as  well  as  censure  imprudent-  righteous.    There  is  a  God  that 

ly."  (4.)  judgeth  in  the  earth."  (5.) 

7.  The  ellipsis  ot  the  preposition,  as  well  as  of  the  verb,  is  seen  in  the 
following  instances:  "He  went  into  the  abbeys,  halls,  and  public  build- 
ings;" that  is,  "  He  went  into  the  abbeys,  he  went  into  the  halls,  and  hq 
went  into  the  pubhc  buildings."  "  He  also  went  through  all  the  streets  and 
lanes  of  the  city;"  that  is,  "through  all  the  streets,  and  through  all  the 
hmes,"  &c.  "He  spoke  to  every  man  and  woman  there;"  that  is,  "to 
every  man  and  to  every  woman."  "  This  day,  next  month,  last  year;" 
that  is,  "  On  this  day,  in  the  next  month,  in  the  last  year."  "  The  Lord 
do  that  which  seemeth  him  good  ;"  that  is,  "  which  seemeth  to  him." 

j     Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the.  preposition  and  the  verb  ? 

:  7. 

y*  Changes  are    almost  continually  gins  smiled  at  what  they  blush- 

taking  place,  in  men  and  in  man-  ed  before."  (5.) 

ners,  in  opinions  and  in  customs,     "  They  are  now  reconciled  to  what 
in  private   fortunes   and  public  they    could    not    formerly     be 

conduct."  (5.)  (3.)  prompted,    by    any    considera- 

"  Averse    either    to    contradict    or  tions."  (5.) 

blame,  the  too  complaisant  man     "Censure  is  thetaxwhich  a  man  pays 
goes  along  with  the  manners  that  the  pubhc  for  being  eminent."  (5.) 

prevail."  (5.)  "  Reflect  on  the  state  of  human  life. 

**  By  this  habitual  indelicacy,  the  vir-  and  the  society  of  men  as  mixed 

with  good  and  with  evil."  (5.) 

8.  The  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  is  as  follows :  "  They  confess  the  power, 
wisdom,  goodness,  and  love  of  their  Creator;"  that  is,  "the  power,  and 
wisdom*  and  goodness,  and  love  of,"  &c.  "  Though  I  love  him,  I  do  not 
flatter  him  ;"  that  is,  "  Though  I  love  him,  yet  I  do  not  flatter  him." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  eUipsis  of  a  conjunction  ? 
S. 
"  In  all  stations  and  conditions,  the     "  Religious  persons  are  often  unjust- 
important  relations  take  place,  of  ly   represented    as    persons    of 
masters  and  servants,  and  hus-  romantic     character,    visionary 
bands  and  wives,  and  parents  and  notions,  unacquainted  with  the 
children,  and  brothers  and  friends,           world,  unfit  to  live  in  it."  (1.) 
'       and  citizens  and  subjects."  (6.)         "  No  rank,  station,  dignity  of  birth, 
^'Destitute  of  principle,  he  regarded           possessions,  exempt  men  from 
neither  his  family,  nor  his  friends,           contributing  their  share  to  public 
nor  his  reputation."  (4.)                          utiUty."  (7.) 

9.  The  elHpsis  of  the  interjection  is  not  very  common :  it,  however,  is  some- 
times used  ;  as,  "  Oh,  pity  and  shame !"  that  is,  "  Oh,  pity  !  oh,  shame !" 

(1.)  Insert  three  words.  (2.)  Insert  two  words.  (9.)  Reject  two  words.  (4.)  IU|^  one  word. 

1^6.)  loMTt  one  wond.  f6,)  Reject  fijur  wo»d».  (7.)  "  nor-~no—nor  on^." 


184  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

As  the  ellipsis  occurs  in  almost  every  sentence  in  the  English  language, 
numerous  examples  of  it  might  be  given ;  but  only  a  few  more  can  be  ad- 
mitted here. 

In  the  following  instance,  there  is  a  very  considerable  one:  "He  will 
often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should 
gain  from  one  nation;  and  if  another,  from  another;"  that  is,  "He  will 
often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should 
gain  from  one  nation ;  and  if  another  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated, 
we  should  gain  from  another  nation." 

The  following  instances,  though  short,  contain  much  of  the  ellipsis :  *' Wo 
is  me  ;"  i.  e.  "  wo  is  to  me."  "  To  let  blood  ;"  i.  e.  *'  to  let  out  blood." 
**  To  let  down ;"  i.  e.  **  to  let  it  fall  or  slide  down."  "  To  walk  a  mile  ;" 
i.  e.  "  to  walk  through  the  space  of  a  mile."  '*  To  sleep  all  night ;"  i.  e. 
**  to  sleep  through  all  the  night."  **  To  go  a  fishing  ;"  **  To  go  a  hunt- 
ing ;"  i.  e.  "  to  go  on  a  fishing  voyage  or  business  ;"  "  to  go  on  a  hunting 
party."  **  I  dine  at  two  o'clock  ;"  i.  e.  "  at  two  of  the  clock."  "  By  sea, 
by  land,  on  shore ;"  i.  e.  "  by  the  sea,  by  the  land,  on  the  shore." 

What  is  said  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  interjection  ? 

9. 
"Oh,  my  father!  Oh,  my  friend !  how     "  Oh,  piety  !  virtue  !  how  insensible 
great  has  been  my  ingratitude  !"  have  I  been  to  your  charms  !" 

(1.)  (2.) 

10.  The  examples  that  follow  are  produced  to  show  the  impropriety  of 
ellipsis  in  some  particular  cases.  "  The  land  was  always  possessed,  during 
pleasure,  by  those  intrusted  with  the  command;"  it  should  be,  "those 
persons  intrusted  ;"  or,  "  those  who  were  intrusted."  "  If  he  had  read  far- 
ther, he  would  have  found  several  of  his  objections  might  have  been  spared  ;" 
that  is,  "  he  would  have  found  that  several  of  his  objections,"  &c.  "  There 
is  nothing  men  are  more  deficient  in,  than  knowing  their  own  characters ;" 
it  ought  to  be,  "  nothing  tw  t»^2cA  men,"  and,  "than  in  knowing."  "I 
scarcely  know  any  part  of  natural  philosophy  would  yield  more  variety  and 
use  ;"  it  should  be,  "  which  would  yield,"  &c.  "  In  the  temper  of  mind 
he  was  then  ;"  that  is,  "  in  which  he  then  was."  "  The  little  satisfaction 
and  consistency  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  systems  of  divinity  I  have  met 
with,  made  me  betake  myself  to  the  sole  reading  of  the  Scriptures;"  it 
ought  to  be,  "  wJiich  are  to  be  found,"  and  which  I  have  met  with."  "  He 
desired  they  might  go  to  the  altar  together,  and  jointly  return  their  thanks 
to  whom  only  they  were  due  ;"  that  is,  "  to  him  to  whom,"  &c. 

"  There  is  nothing  men  are  more  deficient  in,  than  in  knowing  their  own 
characters."     Will  you  correct  this  sentence  ? 

10. 

**  That  is  a  property  most  men  have,  "  Most,  if  not  all,  the  royal  family 

or  at  least  may  attain."  (3.)  had  quitted  the  place."  (2.) 

"  Why  do  ye  that  which  is  not  lawful  "By  these  happy  labors,  they  who 

to  do  on  the  sabbath  days  ?"  (2.)  sow  and  reap,  will  rejoice   to- 

"  The  show  bread,  which  is  not  lawful  gether."  (4.) 

to  eat,  but  for  the  priests  alone."(2.) 

RXJIiZ!    XXXI. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XXII. 

All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond  to  each  other: 
a  regular  and  dependent  construction,  throughout,  should 
he  carefully  preserved.  The  following  sentence  is,  there- 
fore, inaccurate :  "  He  was  more  beloved,  but  not  so 
much  admired,  as  Cinthio."  It  should  be,  "  He  was  more 
beloved  than  Cinthio,lDut  not  so  much  admired." 

(1.)  Reject  one  word.  (2.)  Imert  ooo  word.  C3.)  Insert  three  wonta.  (4.)  Io»ert  two  word*. 


SYNTAX.  185 

The  flrst  example  under  this  rule  presents  a  most  irregular  construction,  namely, 
"  He  was  more  beloved  as  Cinthio."  Tlie  words  more  and  so  much  are  very  impro- 
perly stated  as  having  the  same  regimen.  In  correcting  such  sentences,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  supply  the  latter  ellipsis;  because  it  cannot  lead  to  any  discordant  or 
improper  construction,  and  the  supply  would  often  be  harsh  or  inelegant. 

As  the  31st  rule  comprehends  alt  the  preceding  rules,  it  may,  at  the  first  view, 
appear  to  be  too  general  to  be  useful.  But,  by  ranging  under  it  a  number  of  sen. 
tences  peculiarly  constructed,  we  shall  perceive  that  it  is  calculated  to  ascertain  the 
true  grammatical  construction  of  many  modes  of  expression,  which  none  of  the 
particular  rules  can  sufficiently  explain. 

"  This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that  has,  is,  or  shall  be  publish- 
ed ;"  it  ought  to  be.  "that  has  been,  or  shall  be  published."  "  He  was  guided  by 
interests  always  different,  somAimes  contrary  to,  those  of  the  community;"  "dif- 
ferent/row;" or,  "always  different  from  those  of  the  community,  and  sometimes 
contrary  to  them."  "  Will  it  be  urged  that  these  books  are  as  old,  or  even  older 
than  tradition  ?"  the  words  "  as  old,"  and  "  older,"  cannot  have  a  common  regimen ; 
it  should  be,  "  as  old  as  tradition,  or  even  older."  "  It  requires  few  talents  to  which 
most  men  are  not  born,  or  at  least  may  not  acquire  ;"  "  or  which,  at  least,  they  may 
not  acquire."  "  The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  breaks  the  teeth  of 
the  common  law."  In  this  construction,  the  first  verb  is  said  to  mitigate  the  teeth 
of  the  common  law,  which  is  an  evident  solecism.  "  Mitigates  the  common  law, 
and  breaks  the  teeth  of  it,"  would  have  been  grammatical.  • 

"  They  presently  grow  into  good  humor  and  good  language  towards  the  crown  ;" 
"grow  into  good  language,"  is  very  improper.  "There  is  never  wanting  a  set  of 
evil  instruments,  who,  either  out  of  mad  zeal,  private  hatred,  or  filthy  lucre,  are 
always  ready,"  &;c.  We  say  properly,  "  A  man  acts  out  of  mad  zeal,"  or,  "  out  of 
private  hatred;"  but  we  cannot  say,  if  we  would  speak  English,  "he  acts  out  of 
filthy  lucre."  "To  double  her  kindness  and  caresses  of  me:"  the  word  kindness 
requires  to  be  followed  by  either  fo  or  for,  and  cannot  be  construed  with  the  preposi- 
tion of.  "  Never  was  man  so  teased,  or  suffered  half  the  uneasiness,  as  I  have  done 
this  evening :"  the  first  and  third  clauses,  namely,  "  never  was  man  so  teased,"  "  as 
I  have  done  this  evening,"  cannot  be  joined  without  an  impropriety;  and  to  con- 
nect  the  second  and  third,  the  word  that  must  be  substituted  for  as;  "  or  suffered 
half  the  uneasiness  that  I  have  done  ;"  or  else,  "half  so  much  uneasiness  as  I  have 
suffered." 

Tlie  first  part  of  the  following  sentence  abounds  with  adverbs,  and  those  such  as 
are  hardly  consistent  with  one  another :  "  How  much  soever  the  reformation  of  thia 
degenerate  age  is  almost  utterly  to  be  despaired  of,  we  may  yet  have  a  more  com- 
fortable prospect  of  future  times."  The  sentence  would  be  more  correct  in  the 
following  form  :  "  Though  the  reformation  of  this  degenerate  age  is  nearly  to  be 
despaired  of,"  &c. 

"  Oh  !  shut  not  up  my  soul  with  the  sinners,  nor  my  life  with  the  bloodthirsty ;  in 
whose  hands  is  wickedness,  and  their  right  hand  is  full  of  gifts."  As  the  passage 
introduced  by  the  copulative  conjunction  and,  vvas  not  intended  as  a  continuation 
of  the  principal  and  independent  part  of  the  sentence,  but  of  the  dependent  part,  the 
relalive  whose  should  have  been  used  instead  of  the  possessive  their ;  namely,  "  and 
whose  right  hand  is  full  of  gifts." 

"  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man, 
the  things  which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him."  There  seems  to  be 
an  impropriety  in  this  instance,  in  which  the  same  noun  serves  in  a  double  capacity, 
performing  at  the  same  time  the  offices  both  of  the  nominative  and  objective  cases. 
"  Neither  hath  it  entered  into  the  heart  of  man  to  conceive  the  things,"  &;c.  would 
have  been  regular. 

"  We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compounding  those  images  which 
we  have  once  received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision."  It  is  very 
proper  to  say,  "  altering  and  compounding  those  images  which  we  have  once 
received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision  ;"  but  we  cannot  with  propriety 
say.  "  retaining  them  into  all  the  varieties;"  and  yet,  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  words  are  ranged,.this  construction  is  unavoidable  :  for  retaining,  altering^ 
and  compounding  are  participles,  each  of  which  equally  refers  to  and  governs  the 
subsequent  noun,  those  images ;  dnd  that  noun,  again,  is  necessarily  connected  with 
the  following  preposition,  into.  The  construction  might  easily  have  been  rectified, 
by  disjoining  the  participle  rcfainin^  from  the  other  two  participles,  in  this  way; 
"  We  have  the  power  of  retaining  those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  and 
of  altering  and  compounding  them  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision  ;"  or, 
perhaps,  better  thus:  "  We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compounding 
those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  and  of  forming  them  into  all  the  varie- 
ties of  picture  and  vision." 

Why  is  the  first  example  under  this  rule  inaccurate  ?    **  This  dedication 
may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that  has,  is,  or  shall  be  published."     Will 
you  point  out  the  inaccuracies  in  this  sentence,  and  correct  them  ? 
16» 


186 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


'  Several  alterations  and  additions 
have  been  made  to  the  work."  (1.) 

'  The  first  proposal  was  essentially 
different,  and  inferior  to  the  se- 
cond." (2.) 

'  He  is  more  bold  and  active,  but  not 
so  wise  and  studious  as  his  com- 
panion."  (3.) 

*  Thou  hearest  the  sound  of  wind, 

but  thou  canst  not  tell  whence  it 
Cometh,  a7id  whither  it  goeth." 

'  Neither  has  he,  nor  any  other  per- 
sons, suspected  so  much  dissimu- 
lation." (4.) 

'  The  court  of  France  or  England 
was  to  have  been  the  umpire."  (5.) 

'  In  the  reign  of  Henry  H.  all  foreign 
commodities  were  plenty  in  Eng- 
land." (6.7 

*  There  is  no  talent  so  useful  towards 

success  in  business,  or  which  puts 
men  more  out  of  the  reach  of  ac- 
cidents, than  that  quality  gener- 
ally possessed  by  persons  of  cool 
temper,  and  is,  in  common  lan- 
guage, called  discretion."  (7.) 

*  The  first  project  was  to  shorten  dis- 

course, by  cutting  polysyllables 
into  one."  (8.) 
'  I  shall  do  all  I  can  to  persuade 
others  to  take  the  same  measures 
for  their  cure  which  I  have."  (9.) 

*  The  greatest  masters  of  critical 

learnmg  differ  among  one  an- 
other.^^ 

'  Micaiah  said,  If  thou  certainly  re- 
turn in  peace,  then  hath  not  the 
Lord  spoken  by  me."  (10.) 

"  I  do  not  suppose,  that  we  Britons 
want  a  genius,  more  than  the 
rest  of  our  neighbors."  (10.) 

"  The  deaf  man  whose  ears  were 
opened,  and  his  tongue  loosened, 
doubtless  glorified  the  great  Phy- 
sician." (11.) 


**  Groves,  fields,  and  meadows  are,  at 
any  season  of  the  year,  pleasant 
to  look  upon ;  but  never  so  much 
as  in  the  opening  of  the  spring." 
(12.) 

"  The  multitude  rebuke  ihem,  hecause 
they  should  hold  their  peace." 

"  The  intentions  of  some  of  these  phi- 
losophers,  nay,  of  many,  might 
and  probably  were  good."  (13.) 

"  It  #as  an  unsuccessful  undertak- 
ing ;  which,  although  it  has  failed, 
is  no  objection  at  all  to  an  enter- 
prise so  well  concerted."    (14.) 

"  The  reward  is  his  due,  and  it  has 
already,  or  will  hereafter  be  given 
to  him."  (15.) 

**  By  intercourse  with  wise  and  expe- 
rienced persons,  who  know  the 
world,  we  may  improve  and  rub 
off  the  rust  of  a  private  and  retir- 
ed education."  (16.) 

"  Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even 
more  valuable,  than  knowledge." 
(17.) 

"  No  person  was  ever  so  perplexed, 
or  sustained  the  mortifications,  as 
he  has  done  to-day."  (18.) 

**  The  Romans  gave  not  only  the 
freedom  of  the  city,  but  capacity 
for  employments,  to  several  towns 
in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Germany." 
(19.) 

"  Such  writers  have  no  other  standard 
on  which  to  form  themselves,  ex- 
cept what  chances  to  be  fashion- 
able and  popular."  (20.) 

**  Whatever  we  do  secretly,  shall  be 
displayed  and  heard  in  the  clear- 
est light."  (21.) 

*'  To  the  happiness  of  possessing  a 
person  of  so  uncommon  merit, 
Boethius  soon  had  the  satisfaction 
of  obtaining  the  highest  honor  his 
country  could  bestow." 


(1.)  "  This  work  has  netivtd,'"  &c.  (2.)  "  vsas  infmrior  to  the  second,  and— from  it.*'  (3.)  "  active 

than  his."  (4.)  Insert  "Aa»e."  (5.)  "ortAot  o/."  {6.) '^^ plentiful."  (7.)  Insert  "more'' 

and  "loAtcA."  IS.)  *^  by  reducing— to  words  of  one  syllable  "  (9.)  Insert  a  participle.  (10.)  Re- 

ject one  word.  (M.)  Insert  two  words,  and  reject  one.  (12.)  Insert  "jo."         (13.)  Insert  "Aauc  6een." 

i  14.)  *^  the  failure  of  which  is,  however."         (15.)  Insert «' fceen."         (16.)  End  with,  "and  ru6  ojfiX*  rtwt." 
17.)  "as  knowledge,  and."  (18.)  Insert  •" ieen"  for  ^^done,"  and  end  with  "fucA  mortification.^ 

(19.)  ^  the  inhabitants  of."  (20.)  Bejeet  om  word.  (21.)  *'  displayed  in  the  clearest." 


PROSODY. 


Prosody  consists  of  two  parts :  the  former  teaches  the  true  pro- 
mjNciATioN  of  words,  comprising  accent,  quantity,  emphasis, 
PAUSE,  and  tone  ;  the  latter,  the  laws  of  versification. 


OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

OF   ACCENT. 

Accent  is  the  laying  of  a  peculiar  stress  of  the  voice  on  a  certain  letter  or 
syllable  in  a  word,  that  it  may  be  better  heard  than  the  rest,  or  distinguished 
from  them ;  as,  in  the  word  presume,  the  stress  of  the  voice  must  be  on  the 
letter  u,  and  second  syllable  sume,  which  take  the  accent. 

OF   QUANTITY. 

The  QUANTITY  of  a  syllable  is  that  time  which  is  occupied  in  pronouncing 
it.    It  is  considered  long  or  short. 

A  vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  vowel,  which  occa- 
sions it  to  be  slowly  joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  following  letter;  as, 
fall,  tale,  mood,  house,  feature. 

A  syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  consonant,  which  occasions 
thevowel  tobe  quickly  joined  to  the  succeeding  letter;  as,  ant,  bonnet,  hunglir. 

A  long  syllable  generally  requires  double  the  time  of  a  short  one  in  pro- 
nouncing it ;  thus  mate  and  nole  should  be  pronounced  as  slowly  again  as 
mat  and  not. 

OF    EMPHASIS. 

By  EMPHASIS  is  meant  a  stronger  and  fuller  sound  of  voice,  by  which  we 
distinguish  some  word  or  words  on  which  we  design  to  lay  a  particular  stress, 
and  to  show  how  they  affect  the  rest  of  the  sentence.     Sometimes  the  em- 

Ehatic  words  must  be  distinguished  by  a  particular  tone  of  voice,  as  well  as 
y  a  greater  stress. 

OF    PAUSES. 

Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are  a  total  cessation  of  the 
voice,  during  a  perceptible,  and  in  many  cases,  a  measurable  space  of  time. 

OF   TONES. 

Tones  are  different  both  from  emphasis  and  pauses,  consisting  in  the 
modulation  of  the  voice,  the  notes  or  variations  which  we  employ  in  the 
expression  of  our  sentiments. 


OF  VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  and  variety  of 
syllables,  according  to  certain  Taws. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound  of  one  verse  to  the  last 
sound  of  another. 

Wh&t  II  protodr  ?  How  much  more  time  does  the  pronunciation  of  a 

What  i(  accent  ?  What  ic  the  quantity  of  a  lyllable?  long  syllable  occupy,  than  a  short  one  ?    What  is  em- 

When  ii  a  vowel  or  syllable  long  ?  Wbeo  short  ?  Oiv«  phasis  ?  What  are  pauses  ?   What  are  tones  ?  What  is 

•maplM  of  each.  versiSeation  ?   What  ie  rhyme  i 

(187) 


188  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

OF  POETICAL   FEET. 

A  certain  number  of  syllables  connected  form  a  foot.  They  are  called 
feet,  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the  voice,  as  it  were,  steps  along  through 
the  verse  in  a  measured  pace. 

All  feet  used  in  poetry  consist  either  of  two,  or  of  three  syllables,  ar.d  are 
reducible  to  eight  kinds — four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three — as  follows : 

DISSYLLABLE.  TRISYLLABLE. 

A  Trochee,  —  ^  A  Dactyl,  —  ^^ 

An  Iambus,  '-^  —  An  Amphibrach,  ^  —  "^ 

A  Spondee,  — —  An  AnapaBst,  ^  ^  — 

A  Pyrrhic,  -^  ^  A  Tribrash,  ^  ^  ^ 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last  unaccented ;  as, 
'♦Hateful,  pettish." 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  latter  accented ;  as, 
"  Betray,  consist." 

A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented ;  as,  "  The  pale 
moon." 

A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented ;  as,  "  on  the  taU 
tree." 

A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  latter  unaccented; 
as,  "  Laborer,  possible." 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unaccented,  and  the  mid- 
dle one  accented;  as,  "  Delightful,  domestic." 

An  Anapaest  has  the  two  first  syllables  unaccented,  and  the  last  accented; 
as,  ♦'  Contravene,  acquiesce." 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented;  as,  '*  Niimerable,  conquer- 
able." 

Some  of  these  may  be  denominated  ■principal  feet,  as  pieces  of  poetry  may 
be  wholly  or  chiefly  formed  of  any  of  them.  Such  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee, 
Dactyl,  and  Anapaest.  The  others  may  be  termed  secondary  feet,  because 
their  chief  use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers,  and  to  improve  the  verse. 


PUNCTUATION. 
Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composition  into  sen- 
tences, by  points  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  marking  the  different 
pauses  which  the  sense  and  an  accurate  pronunciation  require. 

The  Comma  represents  the  shortest  pause ;  the  Semicolon,  a  pause  double 
that  of  the  comma;  the  Colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon;  and  the 
Feriod,  double  that  of  the  colon. 

OF  THE  COMMA. 

The  Comma  usually  separates  those  parts  of  a  sentence  which,  though  very 
closely  connected  in  sense  and  construction,  require  a  pause  between  them. 

Rule  1. — With  respect  to  a  simple  sentence,  the  several  words  of  which  it 
is  composed,  have  so  near  a  relation  to  each  other,  that,  in  general,  no  points 
are  requisite,  except  a  full  stop  at  the  end  of  it ;  as,  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the 
beginning  of  wisdom."  **  Every  part  of  nature  swarms  with  living  creatures." 

A  simple  sentence,  however,  when  it  is  a  long  one,  and  the  nominative 
case  is  accompanied  whh  inseparable  adjuncts,  may  admit  of  a  pause  im- 
mediately before  the  verb  ;  as,  *'  The  good  taste  of  the  present  age,  has  not 
allowed  us  to  neglect  the  cultivation  of  the  EngUsh  language."  "To  be 
totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  defect  in  character." 

What  constitutes  a  poetical  foot,  und  why  is  it  so  What  is  punctuation  ?   What  does  the  comma  repre* 

called?   Of  how  many  syllables  do  poetical  feet  con-  sent?    the  semicolon  ?    the  colon?    the  period? 

sist?    How  many  kinds  of  feet  are  there,  and  what  How  is  the  comma  used  ? 

are  they  ?   What  is  a  Trochee?  an  Iambus?  a  Spon-  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  %visdom." 

dee?    a  Pyrrhic?    a  Dactyl?    an  Amphibrach?    an  Does  this  sentence  require  a  pause  iu  if?    Will  you 

Anapaest?    a  Tribrach?    Will  you  give  an  example  give  (he  rule  for  sentences  of  this  kind  ?    "The  good 

of  each  ?    Which  are  ioilled  principal  feet  ?    Which  taste  of  the  present  aue  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect 

•-•*"?    Wh|r?  the  cultivalior  -'•♦»-»  El-"' »• 


PROSODY.  189 

Rule  2. — When  the  connection  of  the  different  parts  of  a  simple  sentence, 
is  interrupted  by  an  imperfect  phrase,  a  comma  is  usually  introduced  before 
the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  phrase  ;  as,  "I  remember,  with  grati- 
tude, his  goodness  to  me."  "  His  work  is,  in  many  respects,  very  imper- 
fect." "  It  is,  therefore,  not  much  approved."  But  when  the  interruptions 
are  slight  and  unimportant,  the  comma  is  better  omitted  ;  as,  "  Flattery  is 
certainly  pernicious."     "  There  is  surely  a  pleasure  in  beneficence." 

Rule  3. — When  two  or  more  nouns  occur  in  the  same  construction,  they 
are  parted  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  The  husband,  wife,  and  children,  suffered  ex- 
tremely."    *'  They  took  away  their  furniture,  clothes,  and  stock  in  trade." 

From  this  rule  there  is  mostly  an  exception,  with  regard  to  two  nouns 
closely  connected  by  a  conjunction ;  as,  "  Virtue  and  vice  form  a  strong 
contract  to  each  other."  "  Libertines  call  religion  bigotry  or  superstition." 
If  the  parts  connected  are  not  short,  a  comma  may  be  inserted,  though  the 
conjunction  is  expressed;  as,  "Romances  may  be  said  to  be  miserable 
rhapsodies,  or  dangerous  incentives  to  evil." 

Rule  4. — Two  or  more  adjectives,  belonging  to  the  same  substantive, 
are  Hkewise  separated  by  commas;  as,  "Plain,  honest  truth  wants  no 
artificial  covering."     "  David  was  a  brave,  wise,  and  pious  man." 

But  two  adjectives  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are  not  sepa- 
rated by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Truth  is  fair  and  artless."  "  We  must  be  wise 
or  fooUsh  :  there  is  no  medium." 

Rule  5. — Two  or  more  verbs,  having  the  same  nominative  case,  and  im- 
mediately following  one  another,  "are  also  separated  by  commas  ;  as,  "  Vir- 
tue supports  in  adversity,  moderates  in  prosperity."  "  In  a  letter  we  may 
advise,  exhort,  comfort,  request,  and  discuss." 

Two  verbs  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are  an  exception  to 
the  rule  ;  as,  "  The  study  of  natural  history  expands  aiid  elevates  the  mind." 

Two  or  more  participles  are  subject  to  a  similar  rule  and  exception. 

Rule  6. — Two  or  more  adverbs  immediately  succeeding  each  other,  must 
be  separated  by  commas;  as,  "We  are  fearfully,  wonderfully  framed." 
"  We  must  act  prudently,  steadily,  and  vigorously." 

When  two  adverbs  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  they  are  not  parted  bv  a 
comma  ;  as,  "  Some  men  sin  deliberately  and  presumptuously."  * 

Rule  7. — When  participles  are  followed  by  something  that  depends  upon 
them,  they  are  generally  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas; 
as,  "The  king,  approving  the  plan,  put  it  in  execution."  "His  talents, 
formed  for  great  enterprises,  could  not  fail  of  rendering  him  conspicuous." 

Rule  8. — When  a  conjunction  is  parted  by  a  phrase  or  sentence  from  the 
verb  to  which  it  belongs,  such  intervening  phrase  has  usually  a  comma  at 
each  extremity;  as,  "They  set  out  early,  and,  before  the  dawn  of  day, 
arrived  at  the  destined  place." 

Rule  9. — Expressions  in  a  direct  address  are  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  commas;  as,  "My  son,  give  me  thy  heart."  "I  am 
obliged  to  you,  my  friends,  for  your  many  favors." 

Rule  10. — The  case  absolute,  and  the  infinitive  mood  absolute,  are  sepa- 
rated by  commas  from  the  body  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  His  father  dying, 
he  succeeded  to  the  estate."  "  At  length,  their  ministry  performed,  and 
race  well  run,  they  left  the  world  in  peace."  "  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was 
much  in  fault." 

Rule  11. —Nouns  in  apposition,  that  is,  nouns  added  to  other  nouns  in  the 
same  case,  by  way  of  explication  or  illustration,  when  accompanied  with  ad- 
juncts, are  set  off  by  commas;  as,  "  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was 

lentence  admit  of  a  pause  ?  If  so,  where,  and  what  is  sta»e  what  points  should  be  placed  in  this  sentence, 

the  rule?  "  I  remember  \vith  gratitude  his  goodness  and  the  rule  for  it?    St^te  the  exceptions, 

to  me,"     Will  you  state  how  this  sentence  «hnuld  be  "  The  king  approving?  the  plan,  put  it  in  execution." 

pointed,  and  the  rule  for  it?    Will  ycyi  slate  the  ex-  Will  ynu  sttte  how  this  sentence  should  be  pomted, 

cepfion  to  this  rule  ?  and  the  rule  for  ii  ? 

"  Plain  honest  truth  wants  no  artificial  coverine:,"  "  They  set  ou'  early  and  before  the  dawn  of  day  ar- 

Will  you  state  how  this  sentence  should  be   pointed,  rived  at  the  des  ined  place."    Will  vou  state  the  rule 

and  the  rule  for  it?     What  exception  is  Ihere  to  this  for  pointing  this  sentence,  and  others  of  a  similar 

rule?    "Virtue  Siipporis   in  adversitv,  mndera'es  in  kind? 

prosperity."    Will  \ou  state  how  this  sentence  should  "  My  son  give  me  thy  heart."    What  Is  the  rule  for 

be  pointed,  and  the  rule  for  it  ?  State  the  exceptions  to  pointing  this  senteiice  ? 

Xh -    o-          -                                 .-.*«-,  "Paul    the   aoostle  of  the  G«ntile«  wp<  ».-**—♦ 

-»:>)     ,  f(,f  >,;,  „^al  and  knowledge."    Wi"  >'  • 


190  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

eminent  for  his  zeal  and  knowledge."  **  The  butterfly,  child  of  the  sum- 
mer, flutters  in  the  sun." 

But  if  such  nouns  are  single,  or  only  form  a  proper  name,  they  are  not 
divided;  as,  "Paul  the  apostle."  *'The  emperor  Antoninus  wrote  an 
excellent  book." 

Rule  12. — Simple  members  of  sentences,  connected  by  comparatives, 
are  for  the  most  part  distinguished  by  a  comma;  as,  ''As  the  hart  panteth 
after  the  water-brooks,  so  doth  my  soul  pant  after  thee."  **  Better  is  a 
dinner  of  herbs  with  love,  than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  with  it." 

If  the  members  in  comparative  sentences  are  short,  the  comma  is,  in  gen- 
eral, better  omitted  ;  as,  "  How  much  better  is  it  to  get  wisdom  than  gold  !" 

Rule  13. — When  words  are  placed  in  opposition  to  each  other,  or  with 
Bome  marked  variety,  they  require  to  be  distinguished  by  a  comma ;  as, 

"  Though  deep,  yet  clear  ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  without  rage  ;  without  o'erflowing,  full." 

*'  Good  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  state,  are  often  found  not  only  in 
union  with,  but  in  opposition  to,  the  views  and  conduct  of  one  another." 

Sometimes,  when  the  word  with  which  the  last  preposition  agrees,  is 
single,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma  before  it ;  as,  "  Many  states  were  in 
alliance  with,  and  under  the  protection  of  Rome." 

*'  The  same  rule  and  restriction  must  be  applied  when  two  or  more  nouns 
refer  to  the  same  preposition;  as,  "He  was  composed  both  under  the 
threatening,  and  at  the  approach,  of  a  cruel  and  lingering  death." 

Rule  14. — A  remarkable  expression,  or  a  short  observation,  somewhat 
in  the  manner  of  a  quotation,  may  be  properly  marked  with  a  comma;  as, 
*'  It  hurts  a  man's  pride  to  say,  I  do  not  know."  *'  Plutarch  calls  lying, 
the  vice  of  slaves." 

Rule  15. — Relative  pronouns  are  connective  words,  and  generally  admit 
a  comma  before  them;  as,  "He  preaches  sublimely,  who  lives  a  sober, 
righteous,  and  pious  life." 

But  when  two  members  or  phrases  are  closely  connected  by  a  relative,  re- 
straining the  general  notion  of  the  antecedent  to  a  particular  sense,  the  comma 
should  be  omuted;  as,  "  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make." 

The  fifteenth  rule  applies  equally  to  cases  in  which  the  relative  is  not  ex- 
pressed, but  understood;  as,  "It  was  from  piety,  warm  and  unaffected, 
that  his  morals  derived  strength." 

Rule  16. — A  simple  member  of  a  sentence,  contained  within  another, 
or  following  another,  must  be  distinguished  by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  To  improve 
time  whilst  we  are  blessed  with  health,  will  smooth  the  bed  of  sickness." 
"Very  often,  while  we  are  complaining  of  the  vanity  and  the  evils  of 
human  Hfe,  we  make  that  vanity,  and  we  increase  those  evils." 

If,  however,  the  members  succeeding  each  other  are  very  closely  con- 
sected,  the  comma  is  unnecessary  ;  as,  "  Revelation  tells  us  how  we  may 
main  happiness." 

When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  follows  its  governing  verb,  with 
several  words  between  them,  those  words  should  generally  have  a  comma 
at  the  end  of  them  ;  as,  "  It  ill  becomes  good  and  wise  men,  to  oppose  and 
degrade  one  another." 

Several  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  having  a  common  dependence,  and 
succeeding  one  another,  are  also  divided  by  commas  ;  as,  "  To  relieve  the  . 
indigent,  to  comfort  the  afflicted,  to  protect  the  innocent,  to  reward  the 
deserving,  are  humane  and  noble  employments." 

Rule  17. — When  the  verb  to  be  is  followed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood, 
which,  by  transposition,  might  be  made  the  nominative  case  to  it,  the  former 


this  sentence  should  be  pointed,  and  the  rule  for  it  ?  limely    who    lyires    a    sober    righteous    and    piotis 

"As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water-brm  ks  so  doth  life.""   Will  you  state  how  this  sentence  should  b« 

my  soul  pant  after  thee."    How  sh  uld  this  sentence  pointed,  and  the  rule  for  it?    Will  you  state  when 

be  pointed,  and  what  is  the  rule  for  it  ?  the  comnja  should  be  omitted  ?    Does  thi^  rule  apply 

"Though  deep  yet  clear  though  gentle  yet   not  to  cases  in  which  the  relative  is  expressed  ?    Give  Jin 

dull  "     How  should  this  sentence  be  pointed,  and  example. 

what  is  the  rule  for  it  ?     State  the   exception   to  "  To  improve   time  whil-t  we  are  bleraed  with 

thi*  rule.     "  It  hurts   a  man's   pride  to    say   I  do  health  will  smooth  the  bed  of  sickness."    How  should 

•^"i  How  should  this  sentence  be  pointed,  this  sentence jo^  -■   .'v'   and  wV  •   ■- 

'       t''<  for    rt?    "He  prea"'  K-  ' 


PROSODY.  191 

is  generally  separated  from  the  latter  verb  by  a  comma;  as,  "The  most 
obvious  remedy  is,  to  withdraw  from  all  associations  with  bad  men."  "  The 
first  and  most  obvious  remedy  against  the  infection,  is,  to  withdraw  from  all 
associations  with  bad  men." 

Rule  18. — When  adjuncts  or  circumstances  are  of  importance,  and  often 
when  the  natural  order  of  them  is  inverted,  they  may  be  set  off  by  com- 
mas ;  as,  "  Virtue  must  be  formed  and  supported,  not  by  unfrequent  acts, 
but  by  daily  and  repeated  exertions."  *'  Vices,  hke  shadows,  towards  the 
evening  of  life,  grow  great  and  monstrous." 

Rule  19. —  Where  the  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  may  often  be  pro- 
perly introduced.  This  is  a  general  rule,  which,  besides  comprising  some 
of  the  preceding  rules,  will  apply  to  many  cases  not  determined  by  any  of 
them;  as,  "From  law  arises  security;  from  security,  curiosity;  Irom 
curiosity,  knowledge." 

Rule  20. — 1'he  words  nay,  so,  hence,  again,  first,  secondly,  formerly, 
now,  lastly,  once  more,  above  all,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  next  place,  in  short, 
and  all  other  words  and  phrases  of  the  same  kind,  must  generally  be 
separated  from  the  context  by  a  comma. 

OF  THE  SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  for  dividing  a  compound  sentence  into  two  or 
more  parts,  not  so  closely  connected  as  those  which  are  separated  by  a 
comma,  nor  yet  so  little  dependent  on  each  other  as  those  which  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  colon.  * 

The  semicolon  is  sometimes  used  when  the  preceding  member  of  the 
sentence  does  not  of  itself  give  a  complete  sense,  but  depends  on  the  fol- 
lowing clause ;  and  sometimes  when  the  sense  of  that  member  would  be 
complete  without  the  concluding  one  ;  as  in  the  folio wmg  instance  :  "  As 
the  desire  of  approbation,  when  it  works  according  to  reason,  improves  the 
amiable  part  of  our  species  in  every,  thing  that  is  laudable  ;  so  nothing  is , 
more  destructive  to  them  when  it  is  governed  by  vanity  and  folly." 

OF  THE  COLON. 

The  colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more  parts,  less  con- 
nected than  those  which  are  separated  by  a  semicolon ;  but  not  so  indepen- 
dent as  separate,  distinct  sentences. 

The  colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  three  following  cases : — 

1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  itself,  but  followed  by 
some  supplemental  remark,  or  further  illustration  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  Na- 
ture felt  her  inability  to  extricate  herself  from  the  consequences  of  guilt: 
the  gospel  reveals  the  plan  of  divine  interposition  and  aid." 

2.  When  several  semicolons  have  preceded,  and  a  still  greater  pause  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  connecting  or  concluding  sentiment;  as, 
"A  divine  Legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from  heaven;  an  almighty 
Governor,  stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward ;  informing  us  of 
perpetual  rest  prepared  hereafter  for  the  righteous,  and  of  indignation  and 
wraih  awaiting  the  wicked  :  these  are  the  considerations  which  overawe  the 
■world,  which  support  integrity,  and  check  guilt." 

3.  The  colon  is  commonly  used  when  an  example,  a  quotation,  or  a 
speech  is  introduced  ;  as,  "The  Scriptures  give  us  an  amiable  representa- 
tion of  the  Deity,  in  these  words  :  '  God  is  love.'  " 


OF  THE  PERIOD. 
When  a  sentence  is  complete  and  independent,  and  not  connected  in  con- 
struction with  the  following  sentence,  it  is  marked  with  a  Period. 

♦«  The  most  obvious  remedy  is  to  withrfi^w  from  all  and  what  is  the  rule  for  it  ?  «  He  feared  want  henc« 
•ssociations  with  bad  men."  Will  you  state  how  this  he  overvalued  riches."  Will  you  state  how  this  sen- 
sentence  should  be  pointed,  and  the  rule  for  it?  tence  should  be  p^inteil,  and  the  rule  fir  it  ? 
•*  Vices  like  shadows  towards  the  evening  of  life  grow  When  is  the  semicolon  u^^ed  ?  When  is  the  colon 
great  and  monstrous."  Will  ynu  give  the  rule  for  lued  ?  In  what  three  cases  may  the  colon  be  properly 
pointing  this  sentence,  and  apply  it?    "From  law  applied? 

•rises  security  from  security  curiosity  from  curiosity  When  is  the  ppriod  uied  ?  After  abbreviated  words 

kaowledee.^    H«w  tbould  this  sentence  be  pointed,  what  point  should  be  used  ?    Oiveexauiple«. 


193  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  Deriod  should  be  used  after  every  abbreviated  word ;  as,  M.  S.,  P* 
S.,  N.  B.,  A.  D.,  O.  S.,  N.  S.,  &c. 


THE  DASH. 
The  Dash,  though  often  used  improperly  by  hasty  and  incoherent  wri- 
ters, may  be  intro(fuced  with  propriety  where  the  sentence  breaks  off 
abruptly  ;  where  a  significant  pause  is  required  ;  or  where  there  is  an  un- 
expected turn  in  the  sentiment;  as,  "If  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected 
once — but,  oh  !  how  fallen  !  how  degraded !" 

INTERROGATION. 
A  Note  of  Interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  an  interrogative  sentence ; 
that  is,  when  a  question  is  asked  ;  as,  *'  Who  will  accompany  me  ?'*  **  Shall 
we  always  be  friends  ?" 

EXCLAMATION. 

The  Note  of  Exclamation  is  applied  to  expressions  of  sudden  emotion, 
surprise,  joy,  grief,  &.c.,  and  also  to  invocations  or  addresses;  as,  ''My 
friend!  this  conduct  amazes  me!"  "Bless  the  Lord,  O  my  soul!  and 
forget  not  all  his  benefits  !" 

The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  indeterminate  as  to  their 
quantity  or  time,  and  may  be  equivalent,  in  that  respect,  to  a  semicolon, 
a  colon,  or  a  period,  as  the  sense  may  require.  They  mark  an  elevation 
of  the  voice. 


PARENTHESIS. 
A  Parenthesis  is  a  clause  containing  some  necessary  information,  or  use- 
ful remark,  introduced  into  the  body  of  a  sentence  obliquely,  and  which 
may  be  omitted  without  injuring  the  grammatical  construction  ;  as, 

"  Know,  then,  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
f  Virtue,  alone,  is  happiness  below." 

The  parenthesis  marks  a  moderate  depression  of  the  voice,  and  may  be 
accompanied  with  every  point  which  the  sense  would  require  if  the  paren- 
thetical characters  were  omitted. 


Directions  respecting  the  Use  of  CAPITAL  LETTERS, 

It  is  proper  to  begin  with  a  capital, 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or  any  other  piece 
of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period,  and,  if  the  two  sentences  are  totally 
independent,  after  a  note  of  interrogation  or  exclamation. 

3.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Almighty,  the 
Supreme  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence,  the  Messiah,  the  Holy  Spirit. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains,  rivers,  ships ; 
as,  George,  York,  the  Strand,  the  Alps,  the  Thames,  the  Seahorse. 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places ;   as,  Grecian, 
Roman,  English,  French,  Italian,  &c. 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a  colon,  or  when  it  is  in  a 
direct  form  ;  as,  "  Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim  :  'Know  thyself.'  " 

The  first  word  of  an  example  may  also  very  properly  begin  with  a  capital. 

7.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of  books  ;  as,  John- 
son's Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  ;  Thomson's  Seasons. 

8.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

9.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  0  are  written  in  capitals. 

Other  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals,  when  they 
are  remarkably  emphatical,  or  the  principal  subject  of  the  composition. 

When  may  the  dash  be  introduced  with  propriety  ?  What   is    n    parenthesis?     Give    an    example    In 

"Who  will  accompany  me?"    What  pomt  should  be  which  it  is  used  with  proprieiy.    Should  the  voice 

used  af  the  end  of  this  sentence  ?  be  elevated  or  depressed  ia  pronouDcinj   a   paren 

To  what  is  the  note  of  exclamation  applied  ?    Give  thesis  ? 

an  example.    Are  the  exclamation  and  interrogation  When  should  capital  letters  be  used  f 
points  detenuiaateas  to  tlteir  quantity  or  time  ? 


E.  H.  BUTLER  &  CO. 
PUBLISHERS  AND  BOOKSELLERS, 

NO.  23  MINOR  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA, 

PUBLISH  THE  FOLLOWING  STANDARD  WORKS. 


SMITH'S  GRAMMAR. 

English  Grammar  on  the  Productive  System  ;  a  method  of  instruc- 
tion recently  adopted  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Designed  for 
Schools  and  Academies.  By  Roswell  C.  Smith,  A.  M.  Price  34 
cents. 

This  work  has  been  before  the  public  several  years.  Notwithstanding  the 
many  new  works  on  this  subject  which  have  from  time  to  time  appeared,  Smith's 
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present  time  its  popularity  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  School  Book  published 
in  the  country,  and  that  the  anndal  sales  of  the  work  in  the  United  Slates  exceed 
that  of  the  aggregate  of  all  the  other  works  on  English  Grammar.  Thousands 
of  recommendations  could  be  given  if  the  limits  would  admit. 

PETER  PARLEY'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  HISTORY: 

A   General   History  for  High   Schools,  Young   Ladies'  Seminaries, 

Academies,  and   Common   Schools ;   with  one   hundred   and  fifty 

engravings,  illustrating  History  and  Geography.     Price  75  cents. 

This  work  is  universally  admitted  to  be  the  most  successful  attempt  to  bring 
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instances  have  occurred,  in  which  pupils,  before  averse  to  history,  have  become 
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The  publisher  requests  my  opinion  of  Parley's  Common  School  History.  It 
is  seldom  that  I  give  an  opinion  upon  school  books,  there  are  so  few  that  I  can 
recommend  with  a  clear  conscience  ;  and  publishers  do  not  wish,  of  course,  to 
send  forth  a  condemning  sentence  to  the  w^orld.  But  in  this  case  I  can  truly  say 
tiiat,  having  used  the  book  in  my  school  since  it  was  published,  I  consider  it  a 
most  interesting  and  luminous  compend  of  general  history  for  the  younger  classes 
of  scholars ;  and  that,  were  I  deprived  of  it,  I  know  not  where  I  could  find  a 
work  that  I  could  use  with  so  much  pleasure  to  myself,  and  profit  to  those  for 
whom  it  is  designed.  ,  Respectfully  yours. 

'  CD.  CLEVELAND. 


E.  H.  BUTLER  AND  Co's  PUBLICATIONS. 


Philadelphia,  September  19,  1839. 
Having  examined  Parley's  Common  School  History,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say 
that,  in  ray  opinion,  it  is  decidedly  the  best  elementary  general  history  I  have 
seen,  and  I  recommend  its  use  to  other  teachers.  M.  L.  HURLBUT. 

The  above  is  concurred  in  by  the  undersigned  as  follows : 
I  intend  to  introduce  it  into  the  academical  department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  under  my  care,  as  soon  as  possible. 

SAMUEL  W.  CRAWFORD. 

I  have  already  introduced  Parley's  Common  School  History  as  a  class-book. 

SAMUEL  JONES, 
Principal  of  Classical  and  Mathejnatical  Institute. 

I  consider  it  one  of  the  best  works  of  its  talented  and  indefatigable  author. 
Its  style  is  clear,  and  its  plan  shows  the  labour  of  thought.  It  is  based,  as  all 
such  works  should  be,  upon  geography,  and  judiciously  cemented  with  chro- 
nology. It  is  surprising  that  any  analysis  of  so  complex  a  science  as  History, 
should  disregard  what  have  been  so  aptly  called  its  "  two  eyes" — Geography  and 
Chronology. 

I  am  sut)mitting  these  volumes  to  the  practical  test  of  daily  lessons  with  my 
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chapters,  and  the  general  classification,  render  their  great  variety  of  subjects 
easy  to  the  unfolding  mind. 

L.  H.  SIGOURNEY. 

ANGELL»S  SERIES  OF  READERS. 

Complete  in  six  numbers.  By  Oliver  Angell,  A.  M,  Principal  of 
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AngeU's  Reader  No.  2,  or  Child's  Second  Book. 

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^ 


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AngelPs  Reader,  No.  4. 

A  gradual  advance  from  the  Third  Number,  and  designed  as  a  Reading 

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Being  a  selection  of  pieces,  in  Prose  and  Verse,  which  can  scarcely 
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standing ;  accompanied  with  an  Explanatory  Key,  containing  much 
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The  whole  forming  a  Series  of  interesting,  useful,  and  economical  School 
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any  previous  publications  ;  and  they  are  more  popular  among  those  who  have 
the  direction  of  education  than  any  ever  prepared  in  this  country.  There  is  a 
decided  advantage  in  possessing  sets  of  Elementary  books  by  the  same  author, 
Avho  has  pursued  a  similar  plan  with  each,  rising  step  by  step,  and  who,  it  is  pre- 
sumed, would  be  better  able  to  preserve  the  proper  gradation  of  style  and  matter, 
than  several  individuals  would. 

COATES'S  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

First  Lines  of  Natural  Philosophy,  divested  of  Mathematical  Formulae ; 

being  a  practical  and  lucid  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Sciences. 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Academies.     Illustrated  with 

264   cuts.     By  Reynell  Coates,  M.  D.     This  work  has  already 

passed  through  several  editions  and  been  introduced  into  many  of 

the  first  schools  in  the  United  States.     Duodecimo,  Price  75  cents. 

I  have  examined  with  some  care  the  "  First  Lines  of  Natural  Philosophv," 
by  Reynell  Coates,  M.  D.,  published  by  E.  H.  Butler  &  Co.,  and  I  believe  it 
to  be  a  work  unusually  well  calculated  to  ^ive  to  the  student  a  clear  understand^ 
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of  the  different  scientific  terms,  previous  to  their  being  used  in  the  work,  are 
advantages  in  my  opinion  of  no  small  merit. 

Signed, 

BENJAMIN  HALLOWELL. 

Philadelphia,  September,  1846. 
Coates'  First  Lines  in  Natural  Philosophy,  is  used  as  a  text-book  for  the  junior 
classes  in  this  institution. 

JOHN  S.  HART, 
Principal  of  Central  High  School. 


E.  H.  BUTLER  AND  CO'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


COATES'S  PHYSIOLOGY. 

First  Lines  of  Physiology;  being  an  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Life, 

written  in    Popular  Language.     Designed  for  the  use  of  Common 

Schools,  Academies,  and  General  Readers.     By  Reynell  Coates, 

M.  D.     Sixth  Edition,  illustrated  with  engravings.     Price  $1.00. 

Physiology  is  a  subject  of  the  deepest  interest  to  all  who  are  desirous  properly  to 

cultivate  their  powers  of  body  and  mind  ;  and  it  is  now  beginning  to  be  conceded, 

that  no  course  of  education  can  be  regarded  as  complete,  without  including  some 

general  knowledge  of  the  science  of  I-.ife.    A  text-book  upon  this  subject  is 

anxiously  sought  for  by  the  leading  teachers  and  professors  of  our  country  ;  but 

it  has  been  supposed  that,  desirable  as  such  knowletige  must  be  for  those  who 

are  charged  with  the  care  of  the  young,  there  is  something  in  the  nature  of  the 

study,  rendering  it  unfit  for  introduction  into  seminaries.     The  error  of  this 

opinion  is  most  clearly  shown  in  the  work  now  offered  to  the  public.    It  contains 

not  a  word  tliat  can  be  regarded  as  objectionable  by  the  most  fastidious  delicacy. 

KENDALL'S  URANOG  RAPH  Y: 

Or,  a  Description  of  the  Starry  Heavens.    Designed  for  the  use  of 

Schools  and  Academies  ;  accompanied  by  an  Atlas  of  the  Heavens, 

showing  the  places  of  the  principal  Stars,  Clusters,  and  Nebulae. 

By  E.  Otis  Kendall,  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in 

the   Central   High   School  of  Philadelphia,   and   Member  of  the 

American  Philosophical  Society.     The  Uranography  contains  365 

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large  maps.     Price  of  the  Uranography  and  Atlas  $1.25. 

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{)ractical  science,  requires  the  use  of  costly  instruments  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
ligher  mathematics.  But  Uranography  requires  for  its  study  no  more  expensive 
apparatus  or  higher  attainments  than  Geography.  The  same  boy  or  girl  who  is 
competent  to  study  the  description  of  the  earth,  may  with  equal  ease,  and  from 
the  same  teacher,  learn  a  description  of  the  heavens.  The  "  Uranography  and 
Atlas"  are  to  the  one  study  what  the  "  Geography  and  Atlas"  are  to  the  other. 

This  work  has  already  reached  its  fourth  edition,  and  is  highly  recommended 
by  Professors  Olmstead,  Loomis,  and  Walker,  as  well  as  by  nearly  every  teacher 
who  has  examined  it. 

HART'S  CLASS  BOOK  OF  POETRY. 
HART'S  CLASS  BOOK  OF  PROSE. 

Being  Selections  from  distinguished  English  and  American  Authors, 

from  Chaucer  to  the  present  day  ;  the  whole  arranged  in  Chronological 

Order,  with  Biographical  and  Critical  Remarks.    Price  75  cents  each, 

sold  separately. 

In  making  a  compilation  like  the  present,  intended  chiefly  for  the  use  of  those 
whose  characters  and  opinions  are  still  but  partially  formed,  it  has  been  deemed 
important  to  select  not  only  master-pieces  of  style,  but  also  master-pieces  of 
thought.  It  is  believed  to  be  a  defect  in  some  of  the  more  recent  publications, 
intended  as  reading-books  for  schools,  that  sufficient  care  has  not  been  used  in 
regard  to  the  sentiments  contained  in  them.  Such  books  very  often,  indeed, 
contain  pleasing  descriptions,  and  interesting  stories,  written  in  an  agreeable 
style,  and  capable  of  affording  amusement  for  children  of  a  certain  age.    But 


E.  H.  BUTLER  AND  CO'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


they  are  not  of  that  masculine  character  that  stimulates  the  mind  to  action, 
or  that  gives  it  materials  to  act  upon  ;  and  they  not  unfrequently  cultivate  a 
taste  for  reading  of  tlie  most  unprofitable  description. 

These  volumes  have  been  introduced  into  the  public  schools  of  the  city  and 
county  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  and  have  received  the  most 
unqualified  recommendations  from  those  who  are  the  best  able  to  judge — those 
that  have  used  them  in  their  schools. 

HART'S      CONSTITUTION      OF     THE      UNITED 
STATES. 

A  Brief  Exposition  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.    By  John 
S.  Haet,  a.  M.,  Principal  of  the  Central  High  School.    Fourth  edi- 
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This  work  has  been  recommended  by  Chief  Justice  Gibson,  Judges  Sergeant, 

Randall,  and  Parsons. 

HART'S  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

An  Exposition  of  the  Principles  and  Usages  of  the  English  Language. 

Price  38  cents. 

in  the  preparation  of  this  work  no  special  attempt  has  been  made  at  novelty. 
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Chamber  of  the  Controllers  of  Public  Schools,  ) 
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Resolved^  That  Hart's  English  Grammar  be  introduced  as  a  class  book  into 
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THOMAS  B.  FLORENCE,  Sec. 

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DONNEGAN'S  GREEK  AND  ENGLISH  LEXICON: 

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8  E.  H.  BUTLEH.  AND  Co's  TLIBLICATIONS. 

criminating  definition?,  and,  when  necessary,  willi  appropriate  examples  and 
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NUGENT'S  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH  DICTION- 
ARY. 

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MCCARTNEY'S,  CALCULUS. 

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YB  36494 


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